Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Food Policy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodpol Calories are cheap, nutrients are expensive – The challenge of healthy living in Arctic communities Tiff-Annie Kenny a , Myriam Fillion b , Jullian MacLean c , Sonia D. Wesche d , Hing Man Chan a, ⁎ a Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Canada b Département Science et Technologie, Université TELUQ, Canada c Inuvialuit Regional Corporation, Inuvik, Canada d Department of Geography, Environment and Geomatics, University of Ottawa, Canada ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Indigenous Inuit Arctic Food security Food cost Nutrition economics ABSTRACT Indigenous Peoples living in rural and remote regions of Canada, the United States, and Australia experience the highest food prices in each country. High food prices, low incomes, and limited access to nutritious perishable foods foster increased reliance on poor quality non-perishable foods. In northern Canada, Inuit experience food insecurity at over eight times the rate of the general Canadian population. This study aims to contribute to the evidence-base for informing food policy in remote northern communities by documenting food prices and in- vestigating the economic dimensions of diet quality and nutrition in one region of Arctic Canada. A participatory food costing study was undertaken seasonally in six communities of the western Canadian Arctic during a 14- month period (late 2014 to early 2016). Community research assistants systematically collected food prices for a list of 106 market foods. Food prices in the region were markedly higher than the national average. The average cost of the Revised Northern Food Basket (to feed a family of four for one week) was CAD $410, over two times the equivalent cost of feeding a family of four in the capital city of Ottawa (CAD $192). Results from this study also provide evidence of significant price differentials between energy-dense nutrient-poor foods, and costlier nutrient-rich foods. Evidenced-based policy is needed to overcome the unique challenges of food retailing in remote northern environments. Such policies must be pursued with due recognition of community priorities and self-determination, and pursued in parallel to initiatives that enhance access to traditional (country) food. 1. Introduction The cost of food in remote, predominantly Indigenous, communities of northern Canada is extremely high (Duhaime and Caron, 2012; Veeraraghavan et al., 2016), despite the existence of Nutrition North Canada (NNC), a federal subsidy program to offset the high cost of transporting food to remote locations (Galloway, 2017). Inuit spend an estimated CAD $19.7 per person per day on food (CAD $7217 annually) (Pakseresht et al., 2014), roughly three times the amount spent by the average Canadian (CAD $6.44/day) (based on the annual average household (2.5 persons per household) expenditure of CAD $5880 of food purchased in-store) (Statistics Canada, 2016a). For several dec- ades, Inuit have indicated that they cannot afford to purchase sufficient food to meet their family’s needs (Lambden et al., 2006). This is re- flected in the very high rates of food insecurity, and the extreme dis- parity (over eight fold difference) in food security status among Inuit, relative to the general Canadian population (62.6% relative to 7.7%) (Egeland, 2011; Health Canada, 2012; Huet et al., 2012; Rosol et al., 2011). Food insecurity among Inuit has been associated with disturbed eating patterns, reduced diet quality, and increased susceptibility to chronic and infectious disease (Egeland et al., 2011; Jamieson et al., 2012). Compounding the matter, Inuit face a dual burden of food in- security and unhealthy body weight, with over 60% of Inuit men and 66% of Inuit women classified as overweight or obese (Zienczuk et al., 2012). High food prices may represent a barrier to the adoption of more healthful diets (particularly among low income consumers), and may be partly responsible for the higher prevalence of obesity and nutritional deficiencies documented among people of lower socioeconomic status (Darmon and Drewnowski, 2015; Darmon et al., 2002; Drewnowski and Darmon, 2005a; Drewnowski et al., 2004). It is hypothesized that poverty and obesity are linked through habitual consumption of low-cost, energy-dense diets (Drewnowski, 2003). Low-cost foods of high energy density (e.g. foods high in sugar and fat), but low https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.08.006 Received 6 June 2017; Received in revised form 9 July 2018; Accepted 18 August 2018 ⁎ Corresponding author at: Gendron Hall, Room 180, 30 Marie-Currie, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 9A7, Canada. E-mail address: Laurie.Chan@uOttawa.ca (H.M. Chan). Food Policy 80 (2018) 39–54 Available online 05 September 2018 0306-9192/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. T