Using a brain-computer interface (BCI) in reducing math anxiety: Evidence from South Africa Silas Formunyuy Verkijika * , Lizette De Wet Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9301, South Africa article info Article history: Received 22 July 2014 Received in revised form 29 September 2014 Accepted 1 October 2014 Available online 15 October 2014 Keywords: Brain-computer interface Math anxiety Computer educational game Mathematics performance abstract Prior studies have indicated that learning mathematics is highly associated with attitudes towards mathematics and emotions like math anxiety. Over the years, strong empirical evidence has emerged, showing that math anxiety has a significant negative effect on mathematics performance. Interestingly enough, some researchers have shown that math anxiety can be trained and reduced. However, the proposed interventions have mostly focused on teachers as oppose to students, while the existing physiological approaches like cognitive behavioural therapy require administration by trained pro- fessionals. With recent advancements in technology, low cost commercial brain-computer interface (BCI) devices that can capture human emotions in real time have been developed and can have a potential use in training and reducing math anxiety. In this study, the objective was to determine if using a BCI mathematics educational game can help students to effectively reduce math anxiety. To attain this objective, a within-subjects longitudinal research design with eight data gathering waves was adopted as the primary methodology to ascertain changes in the participant's level of math anxiety across two sessions that took place on separate days. Analysis of data captured across two training sessions with a BCI mathematics educational game showed that math anxiety can be effectively trained and reduced with a BCI. In addition, the results showed that math anxiety has a significant negative impact on mathematics performance which is congruent with prior studies. These findings provide a novel way in which a low cost non-invasive BCI device can be used for educational purposes. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Understanding the relationship between emotions and learning has gained enormous grounds over the years. Prior research (Sabourin & Lester, 2014; Sun & Pyzdrowski, 2009) has indicated that emotions play a vital role in fostering the cognitive functions that are important for learning. Empirical evidence indicate that positive emotions such as engagement and concentration can enhance learning (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989; Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002; Sabourin & Lester, 2014), while negative emotions such as frustration, anxiety, and boredom have an adverse effect on learning (Meyer & Turner, 2006; Sabourin & Lester, 2014). The development of low cost commercial off- the-shelf BCIs has provided great opportunities for studying and understanding human emotions. A BCI is a communication system for controlling an electronic device (e.g. a computer) based on user evoked bio-potentials. These BCIs are becoming an essential component in understanding how affective computing can enhance education. One important educational discipline in which affective computing can play a vital role is in mathematics education. Learning mathematics is strongly associated with attitudes towards mathematics and emotions like math anxiety (Jansen et al., 2013; Sun & Pyzdrowski, 2009). Ashcraft and Krause (2007) define math anxiety as a “feeling of tension, apprehension, or fear that interferes with math performance” (p.243). The findings of most studies (Ashcraft & Krause, 2007; Jansen et al., 2013; Zakaria, Zain, Ahmad, & Erlina, 2012) have clearly indicated a significant negative relationship between math anxiety and mathematics performance. According to Zakaria et al. (2012) math anxiety is an important physiological dimension of learning that every educator must try to identify in his/her students. However, math anxiety is still very dominant around the globe. For example, about 93% of Americans experience some form of math anxiety * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ27 782208877. E-mail address: vekasif@gmail.com (S.F. Verkijika). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Computers & Education journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.002 0360-1315/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Computers & Education 81 (2015) 113e122