Ecological modernisation and policy learning in Hong Kong Andrew Gouldson a, * , Peter Hills b , Richard Welford b a Sustainability Research Institute, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom b Centre of Urban Planning and Environmental Management, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Received 30 November 2004; received in revised form 2 April 2007 Abstract Whilst ecological modernisation theory emphasizes the potential for modern societies to recognize and respond to their environmental impacts by finding new ways of governing environment–economy relations, concepts of policy learning focus on the scope for new forms of environmental policy to be generated within and transferred between different contexts. Within this paper we explore the conceptual and practical linkages between the two areas of debate – a hitherto neglected area in the literature – and we set this discussion in the context of environmental policy-making in Hong Kong. We suggest that the practical relevance of the concepts of ecological modern- isation and policy learning depends upon the presence of a reflexive society with rational, responsive institutions. While many theorists assume that such institutions exist, our analysis of policies for water and air quality management in Hong Kong highlights the need for theories to consider the embeddedness of existing institutions and the significance of the capacities for, and the barriers to, change more fully. We find that capacities for some forms of ecological modernisation and policy learning do exist in Hong Kong. However, we argue that the nature of these capacities often limits the potential for change to those local environmental problems that can be addressed through more technically and economically viable forms of policy intervention and that can be easily accommodated within existing political and economic structures. We also conclude that the capacities for ecological modernisation and policy learning that are needed if Hong Kong is to tackle the effects of the trans-boundary environmental problems that it is increasingly encountering have yet to emerge. Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Ecological modernisation; Policy learning; Air pollution; Water pollution; Hong Kong 1. Introduction Theories of ecological modernisation (EM) have sought to explain the ways in which modern societies are respond- ing to an increased awareness of, and anxiety about, the ecological risks associated with industrialism (Huber, 1985; Giddens, 1991; Beck, 1991, 1995; Lash et al., 1996; Christoff, 1996). The theory has also been developed as a way of analyzing emergent policy discourses (Hajer, 1995) and as a theoretical basis from which various policy prescriptions can be brought forward to encourage a shift toward more environmentally benign modes of industrial development (Huber, 1985; Ja ¨nicke et al., 1989; Simonis, 1989; Mol, 1995; Gouldson and Murphy, 1997). In each case, EM is centrally concerned with the relationship between industrial development and the environment and with social capacities to recognize and respond to existing and emergent environmental problems. Theories of ecological modernisation therefore see a central role for institutional learning – i.e. where societies draw upon their reflexive capabilities to critically evaluate their foundations and their external consequences and to develop new institutions that mediate the relationship between environment and economy more effectively. In the case of EM, such processes of institutional learning relate particularly to the capacity for environmental policy reform. In this paper we will link theories of EM with an examination of the processes of policy learning in the 0016-7185/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2007.07.002 * Corresponding author. E-mail address: a.gouldson@see.leeds.ac.uk (A. Gouldson). www.elsevier.com/locate/geoforum Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Geoforum 39 (2008) 319–330