VAN MERRIËNBOER, KIRSCHNER, KESTER INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN Taking the Load Off a Learner’s Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning Jeroen J. G. van Merriënboer, Paul A. Kirschner, and Liesbeth Kester Educational Technology Expertise Center Open University of The Netherlands, Heerlen Complex learning aims at the integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes; the coordination of qualitatively different constituent skills; and the transfer of what is learned to daily life or work settings. Recent instructional theories stress authentic learning tasks as the driving force for learning; but due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited pro- cessing capacity of the human mind. In this article we present a framework for scaffolding prac- tice and just-in-time information presentation, aiming to control cognitive load effectively. We briefly describe a design model for complex learning consistent with cognitive load theory. The- oretical and practical implications of the presented framework are discussed. Recent instructional theories tend to focus on authentic learn- ing tasks that are based on real-life tasks as the driving force for learning (Merrill, 2002; Reigeluth, 1999a; van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2001). The general assumption is that such tasks help learners to integrate the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for effective task performance; give them the opportunity to learn to coordinate constituent skills that make up complex task performance; and eventually enable them to transfer what is learned to their daily life or work settings. This focus on authentic, whole tasks can be found in practical educational approaches, such as pro- ject-based education, the case method, problem-based learn- ing, and competency-based learning; and in theoretical mod- els, such as Collins, Brown, and Newman’s (1989) theory of cognitive apprenticeship learning, Jonassen’s (1999) theory of constructive learning environments, Nelson’s (1999) the- ory of collaborative problem solving, and Schank, Berman, and MacPerson’s (1999) theory of goal-based scenario. A severe risk of all of these approaches is that learners have difficulties learning because they are overwhelmed by the task complexity. The aim of this article is to discuss managing cognitive load when rich learning tasks are used in education. First, methods for scaffolding whole-task practice are discussed, including simple-to-complex se- quencing of learning tasks and the use of alternative tasks, such as worked-out examples and completion tasks. Sec- ond, methods for just-in-time information presentation are discussed, including timely presentation of information to support practice on learning tasks and the direct, step-by-step presentation of procedural information. Third, we briefly sketch an instructional design model for complex learning fully consistent with cognitive load theory (CLT). We conclude that CLT offers useful guidelines for decreas- ing intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load, so that suffi- cient processing capacity is left for genuine learning. SCAFFOLDING WHOLE-TASK PRACTICE Scaffolds, according to their original meaning within educa- tional psychology, include all devices or strategies that sup- port students’ learning (Rosenshine & Meister, 1992). In both cognitive apprenticeship learning and our framework, scaf- folding explicitly pertains to a combination of performance support and fading. Initially, the support enables a learner to achieve a goal or action not achievable without that support. When the learner achieves the desired goal, support gradually diminishes until it is no longer needed. Because excessive or insufficient support can hamper the learning process, it is crit- ical to determine the right type and amount of support and to fade at the appropriate time and rate. Many types of support share the common characteristic that they do not direct the learner, as one can do when teaching an algorithm (i.e., proce- dure support), but rather guide the learner during his or her work on complex learning tasks (i.e., problem-solving sup- EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST, 38(1), 5–13 Copyright © 2003, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Requests for reprints should be sent to Jeroen J. G. van Merriënboer, Open University of The Netherlands, Educational Technology Expertise Center, P.O. Box 2960, NL–6401 DL Heerlen, The Netherlands. E-mail: jeroen.vanmerrienboer@ou.nl