Flood alluviation and entrenchment: Holocene valley-floor development and transformation in the British uplands MARK G. MACKLIN \ BARBARA T. RUMSBY I Department of Geography, The University of Newcastle upon Tyne,NEl 7RU, United Kingdom TIM HEAP j ABSTRACT The morphology, sedimentary properties, and sequence of recent coarse-grained flood deposits and earlier Holocene alluvial fills were investigated in Thinhope Burn, a small (12-km 2 ) catchment in the Northern Pennine uplands, northern England. Twenty-one large flood events are recorded by distinctive cobble-boulder bars, sheets and splays, and boulder berms and lobes. Lichenometric analysis showed that all but one of these floods dated from the mid-eighteenth century. The timing of large floods between 1766 and I960 corresponds with major hydroclimatic trends evident in northern Britain and northwest Europe over this period. Discharge estimates suggest that flood mag- nitudes have decreased since the mid-eighteenth century. Channel and flood-plain metamorphosis in late Roman times and in the eighteenth century, following major valley-floor entrenchment (locally as much as 8 m), would appear to have been caused by increased runoff and flood magnitude. This was linked to a shift to a wetter climate with flow augmented by Iron Age and Roman woodland clearance, and drainage of the catchment in more recent times. Results from this study suggest that current models of longer-term Holocene and Pleis- tocene valley-floor development in the British uplands may need to be re-evaluated. INTRODUCTION To date, there have been two main focuses of flood research in the British uplands. First, there have been a growing number of "case studies" carried out in small river catchments (<20 km 2 ) which have examined the impact of recent major flood events in terms of sediment transport, hydrau- lics, and resulting depositional sequences (Carling, 1987; Carling and Glaister, 1987; Coxon and others, 1989; Wells and Harvey, 1987; Wer- ritty, 1984), as well as assessing the importance of rare large floods in shaping valley floors (Carling, 1986; Harvey, 1986; McEwen and Wer- ritty, 1988; Newson, 1980; Newson and Macklin, 1990). Second, meteor- ological and flood archive records have been used to extend flood series (Higgs, 1987a; McEwen, 1987) in larger upland catchments where the relationship between climate, land-use change, and flood frequency has been examined in some detail (Higgs, 1987b; McEwen, 1989,1990). In England, unlike the United States (for example, Baker, 1983, 1989; Costa, 1978, 1983; Knox, 1980, 1984, 1987), there has been little use of the alluvial sedimentary record either to investigate the history of recent flooding in river catchments, or to establish the magnitude and frequency of geomorphologically "effective"floodsover time periods rang- ing from several decades to centuries. This paper considers both geomor- phological and sedimentological approaches to historic flood studies through an investigation of coarse flood sediments, deposited in the past 300 yr or so, in a number of headwater streams in the Northern Pennines, northern England. Our study had three principal aims: (1) to date flood sediments and to evaluate their mode of deposition, (2) to identify changes in the frequency and magnitude of major floods and assess how this might relate to climate, vegetation, and land-use changes, and (3) to examine the role of floods in longer-term valley-floor development viewed in the con- text of Holocene environmental changes in the British uplands. This study forms part of a basin-wide investigation of historic flooding in the Tyne and complements analysis of fine-grained flood sediments carried out by the authors in the lower Tyne valley (Macklin and others, 1992b). STUDY AREA Three headwater streams were studied in detail—Whitewalls Burn (United Kingdom grid reference NY778525, latitude 54°52'N, longitude 2°21'W, 546-240 m O.D., drainage area 8 km 2 ), a tributary of the West Allen River; Thinhope Burn (U.K. grid reference NY680550, latitude 54°53.5'N, longitude 2°30'W, 595-180 m O.D., drainage area 12 km 2 ); and Knar Burn (U.K. grid reference NY675532, latitude 54°52.5'N, longi- tude 2°30'W, 656-200 m O.D., drainage area 20 km 2 ), the last two being tributaries of River South Tyne which drains the northwest part of the Northern Pennines (Fig. 1). The South Tyne and West Allen catchments are developed on Carboniferous sandstones, limestones, and shales. Pleis- tocene glacial deposits, modified by solifluction processes, cover valley slopes with present river channels inset within Pleistocene and Holocene river gravels or bedrock. Whitewalls, Thinhope, and Knar Burns are typi- cal of many boulder- and cobble-bed streams draining moorland catch- ments in the Northern Pennine uplands in having steep gradients (< 1% to -10%), moderate to high yearly precipitation (1,400 mm y _1 at Alston, U.K. grid reference NY718465, latitude 54°48.5'N, longitude 2°26'W), and flashy runoff regimes. Extensive cobble and boulder flood deposits, which form prominent terraces, are present in all three catchments, al- though they are particularly well developed in Thinhope Burn, where detailed geomorphological investigations were carried out. METHODS The morphology, sedimentary properties, and sequence of recent flood deposits and earlier Holocene alluvial units in Thinhope Burn were established along a 4.1-km reach by morphological mapping and leveling Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 104, p. 631-643, 11 figs., 3 tables, June 1992. 631 Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/104/6/631/3381330/i0016-7606-104-6-631.pdf by guest on 14 September 2021