availability. In addition, the dominance of Quercus sp., Fraxinus excelsior and Maloideae (Pomoideae, potentially including Crataegus sp., Malus sp., Pyrus sp. and Sorbus sp.) indicates selection based on combustion qualities (e.g. Kreuz, 1992, 2008). Thirdly, a charcoal study of the French Late NeolithicsettlementChalain-4showsthepresenceofatleast18 taxa and dominance of Fagus sylvatica, Quercus sp., Fraxinus excelsior and Corylus avellana. Comparison of charcoal of dif- ferent periods, diameter measurements and comparison with seedsanduncarbonisedwoodindicatesthatfirewoodcollection was based on a combination of availability, avoidance and selective use of wood with a diameter smaller than 10 cm for use in domestic fires (Dufraisse, 2008). TheinfluenceofNeolithisationonfirewoodcollectioninnorth- westernEuropehasnotbeenstudiedonalargescale.Firstly,charcoal fromMesolithicsitesmaybescarcebecauseofthefewexcavated Mesolithic sites, as were data of seeds not long ago (Hather and Mason,2002).Secondly,firewoodmaynotprimarilybeexpected to be related to Neolithisation. However, the introduction of domestic animals and crop plants is often argued to have resulted in changes that may have influenced firewood use, such as changes in food preparation, increased management of vegetation and creation of hedges around arable plots that could have sup- pliedfirewood(Kreuz,1992).OtheraspectsofNeolithisationalso mayhaveplayedarole.Overall,thepossiblechangesinfirewood collection strategies may have influenced the degree of human impact on the vegetation during Neolithisation. Introduction Analysis of wood charcoal from archaeological sites can show how people exploited their environment by collection of fire- wood. Two main firewood collection strategies can be distin- guished: collection based on availability and on selection. Collection based on availability implies that people used those taxathatwereplentifullyavailable,basedontheprincipleofleast effort(ShackletonandPrins,1992).Collectionbasedonselection implies that people applied certain selection criteria, related to, for example, combustion qualities, physical characteristics and ascribedsymbolicorritualvaluesofthewood,thefunctionofthe fire, and alternative economic purposes of the wood that could have resulted in avoidance (Kreuz, 1992; Newman et al., 2007; Dufraisse, 2008). Firewood collection can also be based on a combination of strategies. Three examples will follow to illustrate charcoal collection strategies in Mesolithic and Neolithic Europe. Firstly, the char- coal from Mesolithic pits and hearths at the Dutch dryland site Mariënberg represents 14 taxa. The broad spectrum indicates usebasedonavailability,whilethedominanceof Pinus sp.and Quercus sp., well-known for their combustion qualities, indi- catesselection(VerlindeandNewell,2006).Secondly,charcoal analysis from 15 Linearbandkeramik (Neolithic) sites repre- sents at least 21 taxa, reflecting firewood collection based on Abstract: This article investigates the firewood collection strategies at late Mesolithic and early and middle Neolithic Dutch wetland sites dating to 5500–3400 cal BC. It provides an overview of published and unpub- lished data of unworked, uncarbonised wood and wood charcoal from 15 sites in 3 regions. It is assumed that the unworked wood primarily represents the natural vegetation. The comparison of the wood and charcoal shows that the main factor influencing firewood collection is availability, as indicated by the use of a broad range of taxa and the predominant use of the most common taxa (primarily Alnus glutinosa). There are addi- tionalindicationsofselectiveuseandavoidanceoftaxaforfuelthatvarybetweentheregions.Thepreliminary comparisonofdatafromsiteswithoutandwithdomesticatesdoesnotshowanydifferencesinfuelusethatcan be related to the Neolithisation process, suggesting that human impact did not change to any extent during the investigated period. Keywords: Firewood,unworkedwood,charcoal,Neolithisation,SwifterbantandHazendonk,TheNetherlands. The Holocene (2009) pp. 1–14 © The Author(s), 2009. Reprints and permissions: http://www.sagepub. co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav 10.1177/0959683609350386 *Author for correspondence (e-mail: waout@hotmail.com) Firewood collection strategies at Dutch wetland sites in the process of Neolithisation WelmoedA.Out (Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, PO Box 9515, Leiden 2300 RA, The Netherlands) Received 11 February 2009; revised manuscript accepted 13August 2009 The Holocene OnlineFirst, published on December 10, 2009 as doi:10.1177/0959683609350386