Not that different in theory: Discussing the control-value theory of emotions in online learning environments Lia M. Daniels a, ⁎, Robert H. Stupnisky b a University of Alberta, Dept. of Educational Psychology, 6–102 Education North, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2G5 b University of North Dakota, Teaching and Learning Department, 252 Education Building, Grand Forks, ND 58202–7189, United States abstract article info Available online 28 April 2012 Keywords: Control-value theory of emotions Online learning environments This commentary investigates the extent to which the control-value theory of emotions (Pekrun, 2006) is applicable in online learning environments. Four empirical studies in this special issue of The Internet and Higher Education explicitly used the control-value theory as their theoretical framework and several others have components of the theory implicitly described. Thus, for each article we examined what emotions were expressed, the antecedents of the emotions, and their academic outcomes in relation to the control-value theory of emotions. In general, the results from these studies parallel those in traditional classrooms, suggesting there are few differences in emotions experienced in online learning environments relative to face-to-face classrooms. A primary reason for the observed similarities in emotions may be that control and value appraisals play consistent roles as antecedents of specific emotions even though students’ learning environment is dramatically different. We conclude with suggestions for future research. © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The nine articles included in this special issue of The Internet and Higher Education reflect inquiry into a broad range of emotions using numerous methodologies and adhering to several theoretical frame- works, the most consistent of which is the control-value theory of emotions (Pekrun & Stephens, 2010). Although the studies are different in many ways, a striking similarity is that the results mirrored research findings on emotions in face-to-face learning environments. From a theoretical standpoint this begs the question: do differences exist in emotions in online and face-to-face learning environments? More specifically, do the unique characteristics of an online learning environ- ment change the applicability of the control-value theory of emotion? These questions are addressed throughout our four-part commentary. First, we review the articles focusing on the specific emotions chosen for investigation and how they align with existing research from face-to- face classrooms. Second, we briefly describe the control-value theory of emotions and examine how control and value may be shaped by the unique characteristics of an online learning environment. Third, we consider how the emotions evoked in online learning environments relate to outcomes according to the tenets of the control-value theory. Fourth, we make recommendations for future research. 2. Emotions online and in face-to-face classrooms A complete list of the emotions investigated in this special issue and their correspondence with the control-value theory of emotions is presented in Table 1. This impressive range of emotions echoes the increased attention a wide variety of discrete emotions have been paid in the research literature, not only in traditional classrooms over the last ten years (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Pekrun, 2011; Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002) but also in online learning environments. For example, anxiety was the earliest and most commonly studied discrete emotion largely due to its disruptive nature and debilitating effect on achievement and wellbeing (Zeidner, 1998). More recently researchers, however, have focused on less intrusive negative emotions such as boredom and hopelessness, and followed the general trend of positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) by examining more pleasant emotions such as hope, enjoyment, and interest (e.g., Daniels et al., 2009; Harackiewicz, Durik, Barron, Linnenbrink-Garcia, & Tauer, 2008; Pekrun, Elliot, & Maier, 2009). Four of the special issue manuscripts focused on discrete emotions in alignment with the control-value theory of emotions: Marchand and Gutierrez; Tempelaar, Niculescu, Rienties, Gijselaers, and Giesbers; Artino and Jones; and Noteborn, Carbonell, Dailey-Hebert, and Gijselaers. Each of the identified studies measured emotions using the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ; Pekrun, Goetz, Frenzel, Barchfeld, & Perry, 2011), which conceptualizes emotions as consisting of both valence (pleasant/unpleasant) and activation (activating/ deactivating). All of the studies reported adequate reliability for the scales, thus suggesting that the recently validated AEQ (Pekrun et al., 2011) is an appropriate tool for use in online learning environments. Internet and Higher Education 15 (2012) 222–226 ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 1 780 492 4761l; fax: + 1 780 492 1314. E-mail address: lia.daniels@ualberta.ca (L.M. Daniels). 1096-7516/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2012.04.002 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Internet and Higher Education