Examining Masculinity Norms, Problem Drinking, and Athletic Involvement as Predictors of Sexual Aggression in College Men Benjamin D. Locke and James R. Mahalik Boston College Male sexual aggression toward women is a serious social problem, particularly on college campuses. In this study, college men’s sexually aggressive behavior and rape myth acceptance were examined using conformity to 11 masculine norms and 2 variables previously linked to sexual aggression: problem drinking and athletic involvement. Results indicated that men who use alcohol problematically and conform to specific masculine norms (i.e., having power over women, being a playboy, disdaining gay men, being dominant, being violent, and taking risks) tended to endorse rape myths and report sexually aggressive behavior. Additionally, men who reported higher levels of problematic alcohol use and risk taking were more likely to report sexually aggressive behavior without endorsing rape myths. Implica- tions and recommendations are discussed. Keywords: sexual aggression, rape myths, masculinity, college students, alcohol Male sexual aggression against women is a serious social prob- lem (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1992; U.S. Census Bureau, 1999), particularly within the college population (e.g., Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987). Sexual aggression prevalence rates are known to vary greatly across cultures, with certain cultural beliefs and values contributing to “rape-prone” cultures (Sanday, 1981). Thus, male sexual aggression can be conceptualized as a combination of sexually aggressive behaviors (e.g., harassment, rape) and the cultural beliefs that support such behaviors, including rape myths, such as rape results from uncontrollable male passions (Schwendinger & Schwendinger, 1974). Because men account for the overwhelming majority of arrests for sexual violence against women, and because many of the rape myths contain assumptions about masculinity and men’s power over women, it seems logical to examine how masculinity may contribute to these concerns. Some of the earliest studies reported that traditional masculinity attitudes predict men’s adherence to rape supportive beliefs (Bunting & Reeves, 1983) and aggressive sexual behaviors (Mosher & Anderson, 1986). More recent re- search has found men’s traditional views of the male role related to attitudes supportive of date rape (Truman, Tokar, & Fischer, 1996) and rape myth acceptance (Davis & Liddell, 2002); further, men’s beliefs and expectations about masculinity were the most powerful and consistent predictor of their sexual violence- supporting beliefs and behaviors (Good, Heppner, Hillenbrand- Gunn, & Wang, 1995). However, only Rando, Rogers, and Brittan-Powell (1998) have examined masculinity as a multidimensional construct in relation to sexual violence, finding that one dimension of masculinity (i.e., restricting affection to other men) predicted college men’s sexual aggression, whereas other masculinity factors (e.g., pursuing suc- cess) did not. We believe that extending this type of multidimen- sional approach to understanding masculinity as it relates to sex- ually aggressive behaviors and rape myth acceptance is important for two reasons. First, assuming that masculinity is a singular global construct ignores the multiple dimensions of masculinity identified in U.S. society. For example, gender theorists posit (David & Brannon, 1976) and researchers confirm (Thompson & Pleck, 1995) a large number of cultural beliefs about masculine gender roles (e.g., be a winner; be emotionally controlled; have power over women; disdain gay men), with as many as 11 distinct masculinity norms identified (Mahalik et al., 2003). Second, using a multidimensional conceptualization of masculinity allows for the potential of a more complex, interpretable, and practically appli- cable relationship between the components of masculinity and sexual aggression. Given our emphasis on college men in this study, we think it important to examine masculinity in the context of other variables identified as predictors of men’s sexual aggression in the college population. One such variable is alcohol use, which is reported to increase men’s perception that female behavior is sexual in nature, decrease the perception of risk involved in sexual aggression, and increase the likelihood of sexual aggression (Fromme & Wendel, 1995; Koss & Gaines, 1993; Seto & Barbaree, 1995; Testa, Liv- ingston, & Collins, 2000). Some research also suggests that participation in collegiate athletics is related to sexual aggression in college men. For exam- ple, one study found male college athletes responsible for up to one third of sexual assaults on college campuses (Koss & Dinero, 1988), and others document a relationship between collegiate athletics and sexual aggression (Caron, Halteman, & Stacy, 1997; Koss & Gaines, 1993; Marchell, 1998). No research, however, has examined whether problematic alcohol use and participation in college athletics relate to rape myth acceptance. Benjamin D. Locke and James R. Mahalik, Department of Counseling, Developmental, and Educational Psychology, Boston College. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Benjamin D. Locke, who is now at Counseling and Psychological Services, Penn- sylvania State University University Park Campus, 221 Ritenour Building, University Park, PA 16802. E-mail: blocke@psu.edu Journal of Counseling Psychology Copyright 2005 by the American Psychological Association 2005, Vol. 52, No. 3, 279 –283 0022-0167/05/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0022-0167.52.3.279 279