Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 25(2), 97–108 C  2010 The Division for Learning Disabilities of the Council for Exceptional Children Direct Instruction in Written Expression: The Effects on English Speakers and English Language Learners with Disabilities Kim Viel-Ruma, David E. Houchins, Kristine Jolivette, Laura D. Fredrick, and Robert Gama Georgia State University Students with disabilities often struggle with writing tasks. In order to improve the written expression performance of high school students with deficits in written expression, a Direct Instruction writing program was implemented. The participants were six high school students in programs for individuals with learning disabilities. Three of the six students were served in programs for students who are English Language Learners. Using a multiple-probe across- participants design, the effect of the writing program was examined. The intervention was implemented over a 5-week period with maintenance checks conducted 2 and 4 weeks after the termination of instruction. Results were variable, but there appeared to be a positive trend in student writing performance as measured by correct word sequence, length of text, and the TOWL-3. Implications for practice and future directions are also provided. Writing is an essential skill needed for academic success in all curricular areas, and for this reason, the course grades of weak writers may be negatively affected specifically due to their inability to express themselves in writing (Alber- Morgan, Haussler, & Konrad, 2007; Graham & Harris, 2006). Weak writing performance can affect students’ access to post- secondary educational opportunities because admission into these institutions is often more difficult for students who have writing disabilities due to the weight placed on writing tasks in the admissions process (Graham & Perin, 2007). In ad- dition, individuals with poor writing performance encounter negative consequences far beyond the classroom as employ- ment opportunities may be limited for those with weak writ- ing skills (College Board, 2003). Such consequences are the result of workplace expectations that require workers to use writing skills in salaried positions to write reports, develop presentations, and communicate ideas. Finally, on a personal level, the ability to express oneself in writing is important because writing about one’s emotions can positively affect overall health (Gortner, Rude, & Pennebaker, 2006). Such positive impacts include fewer visits to the physician’s office and lower rates of self-reported depression. For all of these reasons, it is essential that educators use effective methods for developing the writing skills of their students. Yet, despite the evidence that sufficient writing skills are growing ever more important for success, it does not appear that educational policies are placing enough emphasis on the development of writing skills. The National Commission on Writing (College Board, 2003) reported that American schools are not sufficiently teaching writing and that the skill is not addressed with the same rigor as reading and mathematics. Recent figures pub- Requests for reprints should be sent to Kim Viel-Ruma, Educa- tional Psychology & Special Education, PO Box 3979, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302. Electronic inquiries should be sent to kvielruma1@gsu.edu. lished by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP; Persky, Dane, & Jin, 2003) indicate that students are not performing writing tasks at a successful level. In the NAEP report, only 28 percent of 4th-graders, 31 percent of 8th-graders, and 24 percent of 12th-graders are at or above proficient writing levels. Further, 14 percent of 4th-graders, 15 percent of 8th-graders, and 26 percent of 12th-graders performed below a basic level of achievement in writing tasks (Persky et al., 2003). In addition, the NAEP report indicated that less than 17 percent of fourth-graders per- formed at a proficient level on informational writing tasks. To increase the percentage of students who perform at or above proficient levels of writing performance, specific writ- ing strategies must be implemented. The application of such strategies is especially critical for students who consistently perform at lower levels of performance on writing tasks, such as students with learning disabilities (LD; Graham, Harris, & Larsen, 2001). Students with LD The deficits of students with LD are evident on most com- mon measures of writing performance including standard- ized assessments, length of text, and holistic quality, and they are manifested across a variety of skills ranging from composition development to more elementary usage skills or basic grammatical concepts (Monroe & Troia, 2006). In separate reviews of the literature on writing studies utilizing group and quasi-experimental designs, Andrews et al. (2006), Graham and Perin (2007), and Hillocks (1986) found that basic grammar or usage instruction did not im- prove the writing performance of students; however, it is important to note that the bulk of these studies focused on stu- dents whose writing skills were typically developing. Rogers and Graham (2008), in a meta-analysis of single-subject de- sign writing studies, indicated that instruction in basic skills could increase writing performance. One explanation for this