Educational outcomes for adults formerly in foster care: The role of ethnicity Susy Villegas a, ⁎, James Rosenthal a , Kirk O'Brien b , Peter J. Pecora b,c a University of Oklahoma, Anne and Henry Zarrow School of Social Work, United States b Casey Family Programs, United States c University of Washington, School of Social Work, United States abstract article info Article history: Received 8 February 2013 Received in revised form 4 November 2013 Accepted 6 November 2013 Available online 16 November 2013 Keywords: Foster care Out-of-home care Education disparities Hispanics Adult educational outcomes Child welfare Disproportionality Focusing on Hispanics and using data from the Casey National Foster Care Alumni Study, this paper examines the impact of ethnicity and other predictors on educational outcomes of adults placed in family foster care as chil- dren/youth. Though 88% of the alumni completed high school with a diploma or a GED, less than 10% obtained bachelor's degrees or higher. Regression models indicated that ethnicity did not predict outcomes. Physical/ learning disabilities, placement in care due to child maltreatment, younger age at entrance into child welfare, less time in care, instability in care, less preparation for leaving care, and younger age at the time of the study in- terview predicted lower educational outcomes. Findings are interpreted and the importance of stability of place- ment, continuity of services, and transition-to-independence services are discussed. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Education is relevant for the development and prosperity of a nation, but also for the economic and social stability of its individuals and fam- ilies through generations. Access to higher education contributes to so- cial equity (Finnie, 2012), while lower socioeconomic status predicts lower educational outcomes (Johansson & Höjer, 2012). For ethnic mi- norities overrepresented in the lower socioeconomic sectors of society, the risk for low education attainment is higher. In a cyclical way, lower education attainment restricts ethnic minorities' opportunities for social mobility, perpetuating the cycle of poverty. Child welfare research continues to pinpoint challenges in the edu- cation of those placed in foster care, from preschool to high school and, later, in university education (Dworsky & Pérez, 2009; Hernandez & Macartney, 2008; Jackson & Cameron, 2012; Smithgall, Gladden, Howard, Goerge, & Courtney, 2004; Vinnerljung & Hjern, 2011). Even though educational challenges for foster care youth have long-term consequences for adult self-sufficiency and independence (Buehler, Orme, Post, & Patterson, 2000; Macmillan & Hagan, 2004), research pertaining to adult educational outcomes for such youth is limited, espe- cially for ethnic minority groups. These limitations are particularly important given the overrepresen- tation of ethnic minority children in foster care (Fluke, Jones-Harden, Jenkins, & Ruehrdanz, 2011; Fluke, Yuan, Hedderson, & Curtis, 2003; Hill, 2006; Knott & Donovan, 2010; Schuck, 2005; USDHHS, 2008) and the education disparities that affect ethnic minorities (Fry, 2010; Hernandez & Macartney, 2008; Kao & Thompson, 2003; Kaushal & Nepomnyaschy, 2009; Rueben & Murray, 2008). Ethnic minority children represent 44% of the (estimated) 73,878,478 U.S. children/youth under age 18 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). However, in 2010, ethnic minority children represented about 55% of the children/youth in foster care (USDHHS, 2011). Even after controlling for child, caregiver, household, and maltreatment character- istics, the odds of being placed in foster care are 44% greater for African American children than for White children (Knott & Donovan, 2010). Of particular interest for this paper is the meager information concerning Hispanics, which renders them next-to invisible to child wel- fare authorities and policymakers. There are, however, 47 million His- panics in the United States, 15% of the population (Fry, 2010). Hispanics constitute 25% of the national population estimate for those younger than 5 and 23% of all persons under age 18 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). In terms of foster care, the USDHHS (2012) preliminary report for year 2011 showed 83,810 Hispanic children/youth in out-of- home care; this represented 21% of the foster care population. The in- creasing representation of Hispanic youth in foster care is evident across many states, including Washington and Minnesota (Hill, 2007), Puerto Rico, New Mexico, California, Texas, Arizona, Colorado, and Connecticut (Hill, 2003). Preliminary reports indicate that the greatest representation Children and Youth Services Review 36 (2014) 42–52 ⁎ Corresponding author at: Anne and Henry Zarrow School of Social Work, University of Oklahoma, 700 Elm Avenue, Norman, OK 73019, United States. Tel.: +1 405 325 1400; fax: +1 405 325 7072. E-mail address: susy.villegas@ou.edu (S. Villegas). 0190-7409/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.11.005 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Children and Youth Services Review journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth