Abstract—Road and stream intersections require a crossing that allows safe passage of water and vehicles. Culverts are normally used when roads cross small streams. Recently, passage of aquatic organisms through culverts has received increased attention. We used a geographic information system (GIS) analysis to determine the degree of salamander habitat fragmentation in Tucker and Randolph counties in West Virginia, USA. We visited state roads with culverts and categorized salamander barriers as complete, partial, or nonbarrier, based on outlet hang, culvert slope, and substrate. Complete barriers occurred at 55.0% of the sites visited and partial barriers at 34.2%. We found that 20.6% of the total stream length in the Dry Fork watershed and 18.4% in the Shavers Fork watershed were isolated by at least a partial barrier. Outlet hang height and the presence (or absence) of streambed substrate were the main determinants of stream salamander passage. Outlet hang was positively correlated with stream gradient and culvert slope. Culverts containing streambed substrate occurred on lower gradient streams, had lower culvert slope, and had a greater width compared to culverts lacking substrate. Solutions to facilitate movement of salamanders and other aquatic organisms are needed to maintain stream connectivity and provide mitigation opportunities. Index Terms—Stream salamanders, culverts, habitat fragmentation, roads, streams, passage. I. INTRODUCTION Roads are a necessary component of human lives and a prominent feature on the landscape. The need for roads is not likely to change, and therefore as wildlife managers and environmental stewards we should strive to minimize their impacts on wildlife and their ecosystems. Practitioners of stream restoration have begun to develop ways to maintain stable road crossings and functioning streams [1]. However, the field of culvert installation to maintain geomorphic stability and provide passage of fish and other aquatic organisms is still in its infancy [2]. Salamanders have received little consideration for passage through culverts [2], [3]. Most studies focus on the passage of fish, including the development of computer software to Manuscript received August 1, 2013; revised October 25, 2013. This work was supported in part by the West Virginia Division of Highways. J. T. Anderson and J. T. Petty are with the Environmental Research Center and Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506 USA (e-mail: jim.anderson@mail.wvu.edu). R. L. Ward was with the Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506 USA and is currently with AllStar Ecology, Fairmont, WV 26554 USA. J. S. Kite is with the Department of Geology and Geography, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506. M. P. Strager is with the Division of Resource Management, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506 USA. analyze culvert passage issues [2], [4], [5]. Excessive outlet hang of culverts is a common condition that blocks fish passage [2], [6]; however, culvert slope also can block fish passage [5]. The culvert outlet bottom should be below the outlet pool to prevent hanging barriers [7]. However, fish are able to use the outlet pool to swim and attain a sufficient velocity to overcome modest outlet hang [8]-[10]. Amphibians are weak swimmers compared to fish [11]. The reduced swimming ability of salamanders would most likely inhibit their ability to make use of outlet pools as areas to build up speed for jumping out of the water although salamanders on land can jump short distances to avoid predators [12]. Adult Axolotls (Ambystoma mexicanum) have lower swimming ability than most fishes [13]. Lower swimming abilities suggest that high water velocities through culverts would have a greater impact on salamanders than on fish. During normal runoff conditions, water velocities in streams are typically 0–0.9m/sec near the channel bed and stream margins where most aquatic organisms live and travel [2]. Differences in water velocity in culverts compared to natural channels are likely to impede salamander passage [11].Flow velocities in culverts with gradients as low as 1–2% may exceed 1.2–1.5m/sec under normal runoff conditions without even constricting the channel width [2]. Velocities in culverts exceed extreme velocities in the natural channel that average 0.9–1.8m/sec during bankfull flows [2]. Terrestrial capabilities of salamanders could possibly allow them to navigate through or around culverts, but leaving their preferred habitat and crossing roads may make them vulnerable to predators and automobile mishaps [11]. Culverts need to be placed so the culvert bottoms mimic natural streambeds [14], because the physical nature of the bed material in a stream may be the most biologically significant factor affecting stream functions [15]. Salamanders use the channel substrate for refuge and foraging [16]. Culvert hang and slope as described above is also a major factor contributing to passage issues. Newly constructed roads that cross streams need to be built in a manner to not restrict any form of aquatic life movement, not just fish [3]. Previous research in the Appalachians has found that the presence of roads with culverts that were designated as being complete barriers to stream salamander movement was an important factor in dictating differences in salamander abundance, diversity, and richness at both the stream-level and the reach-level (i.e., above and below culverts) [3]. Indeed, abundance of Northern Two-lined (Eurycea bislineata), Appalachian Seal (Desmognathus monticola), Northern Spring (Desmognathus fuscus), and Mountain Culvert Effects on Stream and Stream-Side Salamander Habitats James T. Anderson, Ryan L. Ward, J. Todd Petty, J. Steven Kite, and Michael P. Strager International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 5, No. 3, June 2014 274 DOI: 10.7763/IJESD.2014.V5.491