International Journal of Child Health and Nutrition, 2013, 2, 335-352 335 E-ISSN: 1929-4247/13 ©Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2013 Considering Seasonal Variations in Food Availability and Caring Capacity when Planning Complementary Feeding Interventions in Developing Countries Ramani Wijesinha-Bettoni, Gina Kennedy, Charity Dirorimwe and Ellen Muehlhoff * Nutrition Education and Consumer Awareness Group, Nutrition Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy Abstract: During early childhood, adequate nutrition is critical for preventing and reducing chronic undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies. Seasonal food availability, access to diverse food and maternal workload are among the known constraints to successful infant and young child feeding practices. In rural areas in developing countries, many populations experience seasonal food shortages, which often coincide with an increase in food prices and a peak period for agricultural labour. Seasonal pressure on women’s time can negatively impact cooking and caring practices and intra- family food distribution. These factors combine to affect the nutritional status of especially children and women. This paper shows how seasonal food availability data are collected and utilized in designing complementary feeding interventions. Examples are drawn from FAO food and nutrition security projects in Afghanistan, Cambodia, Laos and Zambia which began with formative research using Trials of Improved Practices. Methods include use of seasonal food availability calendars and development of season-specific dishes and recipes. How seasonal variations in food availability and caring capacity feature in the educational materials developed by these projects is also reported. Finally, we provide practical ideas for incorporating coping strategies for dealing with seasonal effects when planning such interventions. Keywords: Seasonality, infant and young child feeding, complementary feeding, trials of improved practices (TIPs), developing countries. INTRODUCTION Background Adequate nutrition during infancy and early childhood is critical for optimal growth, health and cognitive development of children. Complementary feeding (CF) is the process which starts when breastmilk alone is no longer sufficient to meet the nutritional requirements of infants. Additional foods are needed to complement breastmilk intake from 6-23 months of age [1]. Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) interventions to prevent and address moderate malnutrition include nutrition education on CF practices, fortification of complementary foods with micronutrients, provision of complementary foods offering extra energy, and various processing/ preparation techniques for enhanced nutrient density/bioavailability [2]. CF interventions with a food- based, comprehensive approach may be more effective, safer and sustainable than programmes targeting individual nutrient deficiencies in contexts where food insecurity is not a major constraint [3-4]. *Address correspondence to this author at the Nutrition Education and Consumer Awareness Group, Nutrition Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy; Tel: 0039 06 5705 4113; Fax: 0039 06 5705 4593; E-mail: Ellen.Muehlhoff@fao.org The views expressed in this information product are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO. Seasonal availability and access to different foods were identified among the constraints to successful IYCF interventions in a WHO/UNICEF technical meeting [5]. Two of the five goals in the new Zero Hunger Challenge launched by the UN Secretary- General in 2012 are: 100% access to adequate food all year round (Goal 1) and Zero stunted children less than 2 years (Goal 2), “ensuring universal access to nutritious food in the 1000-day window of opportunity between the start of pregnancy and a child’s second birthday, supported by nutrition-sensitive health care, water, sanitation, education and specific nutrition interventions, coupled with initiatives that enable empowerment of women”[6]. Seasonality affects the quantity and types of food available; seasonal increases in food prices and variability in available incomes at the household level all contribute to seasonal variations in the cost of an adequate diet [7]. Seasonality and Children’s Nutrition In the first systematic study of seasonality for over 20 years, Chambers and co-workers examined how seasonality continues to be neglected despite being a glaringly obvious dimension of poverty, which affects the nutritional status of vulnerable groups [8]. The classical seasonality-nutrition scenario is that at the end of the dry season and during the rainy season food stocks run low, food prices increase and food consumption decreases. The rainy season is also a