115 If governing Islam is to be understood as a form of state public policy, it follows that it has its own set of particular instruments, techniques, and tools. In the cases of Turkey and Morocco, both states conceive of religious affairs as a distinct domain of public policy and employ spe- cifc policy instruments to govern the religious feld. In addition, they are both part of traditional systems of cooperation and confict between state, parapublic, and non-state religious actors, and the expansion of state religious activities abroad has forced both to rely even more on the latter two sets of actors than is the case at home. Nevertheless, the transnational context has not altered the fact that religion continues to be framed as its own domain of public policy. Conversely, neither France nor Germany views religious affairs as a holistic administrative category within state policy. Religion in both countries is subject to different regimes of state–church cooperation or separation in which state action towards religion is fragmented between numerous policy domains that are not necessarily in communication with another. The question of Islam has led both states to take new approaches to religious governance over the last years; however, and despite their many signifcant differences, both states share the dif fculty that they are only able to partially govern Islam. The frst part of this chapter discusses partial governance and its policy instruments, emphasizing that religion rarely if ever exists as a distinct feld of state action in France and Germany. The second CHAPTER 5 Creating a National Islam? Partial Governance and Public Policy Instruments © The Author(s) 2019 B. Bruce, Governing Islam Abroad, The Sciences Po Series in International Relations and Political Economy, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78664-3_5