Relations Between Three Dopaminergic System Genes, School Attachment, and Adolescent Delinquency Adam Fine, Alissa Mahler, Cortney Simmons, Chuansheng Chen, Robert Moyzis, and Elizabeth Cauffman University of California, Irvine Both environmental factors and genetic variation, particularly in genes responsible for the dopaminergic system such as DRD4, DRD2, and DAT1 (SLC6A3), affect adolescent delinquency. The school context, despite its developmental importance, has been overlooked in gene-environment research. Using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (NICHD ECCYD), this study examined key interactions between school attachment and (a) each of the DRD4, DRD2, and DAT1 (SLC6A3) genotypes; and (b) a polygenic score. Results indicate that there is a main effect of school attachment, unlike genetic variation, on delinquency. Interestingly, there are important interactive effects of school attachment and dopaminergic genotypes on delinquency. Carriers of the DRD2-A1 allele were differentially affected by both positive and negative school environments, whereas DAT1-10R carriers fared the same as 9R homozygotes in poorer and moderate school environments, but fared disproportionately better in more positive environments. Contrary to expectations, youth without the DRD4-7R allele were particularly affected by the school environment. These findings contribute to the literature considering the roles of both context and genes in delinquency research, and inform our understanding of the individual-level traits that influence sensitivity to particular contexts. Keywords: dopamine, genetics, adolescence, delinquency, school attachment It is well-understood that both genetic and environmental factors work together to shape development (Mullineaux & DiLalla, 2015) and to affect adolescent delinquency (Dmitrieva & Espel, 2014; Turkheimer, 2000). Researchers acknowledge that specific genetic variants may interact with particular environments to affect delin- quency (Caspi et al., 2003; Moffitt, 2005). Equally difficult as identifying “which gene” and “what mechanism” is the challenge of focusing on the “environment” (see Salvatore & Dick, 2015). Studies of such gene-environment (GE) interactions have typi- cally focused on the family, peer, or neighborhood contexts. Sur- prisingly, prior GE delinquency research has largely ignored the school context, despite the fact that school is essential for promot- ing positive youth development and reducing delinquency involve- ment (Brookmeyer Fanti, & Henrich, 2006; Hirschi, 1969; Li et al., 2011; Thornberry, 1987). Not all school contexts are the same, however, and equally important, not all contexts influence adoles- cents in the same manner. The dopamine D4 (DRD4) receptor is important to consider in regards to susceptibility to delinquency and context not only because DRD4 variation has been found to be associated with delinquency (Beaver et al., 2007; Boutwell & Beaver, 2008), but also because it is implicated in various GE interactions for adolescent delinquency (see Bakermans- Kranenburg & van IJzendoorn, 2006; Barnes & Jacobs, 2013; Beaver, Gibson, DeLisi, Vaughn, & Wright, 2012; Janssens et al., 2015; Sheese, Voelker, Rothbart, & Posner, 2007). Despite the strong links between school context and delinquency, studies have yet to examine whether the school context is more influential for individuals with the DRD4-7R allele. Schools, Genetic Variation, and Delinquency Although GE studies have largely focused on the influence of the home and neighborhood contexts on delinquency, other con- texts become increasingly important in the development of proso- cial behaviors during adolescence. Youth spend more time in school than in any other environment (Roeser, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2000), thus it is unsurprising that school becomes particularly important for promoting the skills, competencies, and values that enable adolescents to successfully transition into adulthood and promote prosocial behaviors (Hirschfield & Gasper, 2011; Thorn- berry, 1987; Wang & Eccles, 2013; Wang & Holcombe, 2010). Yet despite its salience to positive youth development, schools have received far less attention than family or friends in GE studies of delinquency. One customary method of analyzing the school context is through the youth’s perceptions of the school. How a youth feels about his or her school is critical for development during adoles- cence. School attachment is characterized by close affective rela- tionships with the school and is an important component of a variety of developmental theories (Catalano, Haggerty, Oesterle, Fleming, & Hawkins, 2004; Hirschi, 1969). Youth who are more Adam Fine, Alissa Mahler, Cortney Simmons, and Chuansheng Chen, Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine; Robert Moyzis, Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine; Elizabeth Cauffman, Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Adam Fine, Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of Cal- ifornia, 4308 Social and Behavioral Sciences Gateway, Irvine, CA 92697. E-mail: finea@uci.edu This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Developmental Psychology © 2016 American Psychological Association 2016, Vol. 52, No. 11, 1893–1903 0012-1649/16/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dev0000166 1893