The process of selective exposure: Why confirmatory information search weakens over time Peter Fischer a,⇑ , Stephen Lea b , Andreas Kastenmüller c , Tobias Greitemeyer d , Julia Fischer e , Dieter Frey e a Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Universitaetsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria b University of Exeter, UK c John-Moores-University, Liverpool, UK d University of Innsbruck, Austria e Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany article info Article history: Received 24 July 2007 Accepted 7 September 2010 Available online 16 October 2010 Accepted by William Bottom Keywords: Selective exposure Decision making Confirmatory information search Biased assimilation Sequence of information search abstract The present research investigated whether the tendency to prefer decision-consistent to decision-incon- sistent information after making a preliminary choice would vary during the sequential process of searching for additional pieces of decision-relevant information. Specifically, it was tested whether deci- sion makers would be more confirmatory in their information evaluation and search at the commence- ment rather than end of an information search process. In fact, five studies revealed that participants exhibited stronger confirmatory tendencies in both information evaluation (Studies 2 and 5) and search (Studies 1, 3, and 4) immediately after making a preliminary decision compared to during the later stages of an information search process. With regard to the underlying mechanism, results further revealed that individuals appear to be more motivated to detect the best decision alternative at the beginning (as opposed to the end) of an information search process, which leads to increases in confirmatory informa- tion processing during these stages. Ó 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Introduction When searching for new information, individuals often preferen- tially seek pieces of information which are consistent with their a priori decisions, attitudes, or viewpoints – a tendency that is called ‘confirmatory information search’ or ‘selective exposure’ (Festinger, 1957; Frey, 1986; Jonas, Schulz-Hardt, Frey, & Thelen, 2001). A wide range of studies have shown that selective exposure occurs in con- text of both individual (Frey, 1986; Jonas et al., 2001) and group deci- sion making (Schulz-Hardt, Frey, Lüthgens, & Moscovici, 2000). It has been also observed in context of the stereotypes people hold (John- ston, 1996); self-serving conclusions they make (Holton & Pyszczyn- ski, 1989); attitudes they hold (Lundgren & Prislin, 1998); and advices they give (Jonas & Frey, 2003). This tendency is an important psychological phenomenon in research on decision making, because it is often responsible for poor decision outcomes (e.g., Kray & Galin- sky, 2003). An additional factor that is strongly related to the selec- tive exposure effect (indeed being one of its most important determinants; Fischer, Jonas, Frey, & Schulz-Hardt, 2005; Fischer, Schulz-Hardt, & Frey, 2008; Schulz-Hardt, Fischer, & Frey, 2010) is that individuals evaluate information that is consistent with their own decision preferences more positively than that which is incon- sistent with them (Ditto & Lopez, 1992; Greitemeyer, Fischer, Frey, & Schulz-Hardt, 2009). This can also prove a barrier to the revision of incorrect initial judgements, in both individual (Greitemeyer & Schulz-Hardt, 2003) and group settings (Greitemeyer, Schulz-Hardt, Brodbeck, & Frey, 2006). Although there has been a great deal of research into selective exposure, knowledge about what happens within a specific infor- mation search sequence (incorporating the processes of informa- tion search and evaluation) is limited. Confirmatory information tendencies have mostly been treated as constant within a given information search process, and as a consequence, research has mostly focused on its final indicator, confirmation bias; regardless of whether these tendencies occurred early or late in the decision making process. The possibility of variations between different temporal stages of information evaluation and search has been only sparsely discussed and investigated. The present research pro- poses that the extent to which decision makers exhibit confirma- tory information evaluation and search is stronger in the initial (rather than later) stages of a decision-relevant information search process. The effect of search stage upon the level of selectivity in information search is anticipated by both the classic defense- motivational (dissonance) approach (Frey, 1986) and the more re- cent, evaluation-based accuracy-motivational perspective (Fischer et al., 2005; Schulz-Hardt et al., 2010). Five studies tested this 0749-5978/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.09.001 ⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Karl-Franzens-University, Department Psychol- ogy, Social Psychology, Universitaetsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria. E-mail address: peter.fischer@uni-graz.at (P. Fischer). URL: http://www.uni-graz.at/socialpsychology (P. Fischer). Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 114 (2011) 37–48 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/obhdp