Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Environmental Research journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envres Genotoxic and carcinogenic effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic fields Adem Kocaman ⁎ , Gamze Altun, Arife Ahsen Kaplan, Ömür Gülsüm Deniz, Kıymet Kübra Yurt, Süleyman Kaplan Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical Faculty, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Electromagnetic field Frequency Carcinogenic Genotoxic ABSTRACT New technologies in electronics and communications are continually emerging. An increasing use of these electronic devices such as mobile phone, computer, wireless fidelity connectors or cellular towers is raising questions concerning whether they have an adverse effect on the body. Exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF) is frequently suggested to have adverse health effects on humans and other organisms. This idea has been reported in many studies. In contrast, the therapeutic effects of EMF on different organs have also been reported. Research findings are inconsistent. This has given rise to very profound discrepancies. The duration and fre- quency of mobile phone calls and the association observed with various health effects has raised serious concerns due to the frequency with which these devices are used and the way they are held close to the head. The present review assesses the results of in vitro, in vivo, experimental, and epidemiological studies. The purpose of the study is to assess data concerning the carcinogenic and genotoxic effects of non-ionizing EMF. The major genotoxic and carcinogenic effects of EMF, divided into subsections as low frequency effects and radiofrequency effects, were reviewed. The inconsistent results between similar studies and the same research groups have made it very difficult to make any comprehensive interpretation. However, evaluation of current studies suggests that EMF may represent a serious source of concern and may be hazardous to living organisms. 1. Introduction With the impact of the globalization, the world has entered a time of change and development. This is leading to rapid population growth and energy consumption (Asumadu-Sarkodie and Owusu, 2016). Fast growing wireless broadband and communication technologies have become the main source of global pollution by creating threats to the environment and human life, while at the same time providing concrete solutions to the emerging needs of globalization (Milner et al., 2012). Today, with the widespread use of electric devices, electromagnetic fields (EMF) have become a particularly important global phenomenon, and one that is creating concerns and worries among many people (Miclaus and Calota, 2010; Stather, 1997). EMF consists of both electric and magnetic fields of force (Phillips, 2013). It was first discovered during the 19th century (Berkson, 2000), however, it has been present since life first emerged, due to its generation via natural phenomena (Sher, 1997). All living things are continuously exposed to EMF from natural sources at levels between 25 μT and 65 μT (Gould, 1984). In addition to natural sources of EMF, living organisms are also exposed to EMF generated by human-made sources, such as cell phones, cell phone base stations, radio stations, computer screens and many other electrical devices widely used in daily life (Berg, 1992). The question of whether exposure to EMF is beneficial or hazardous is still the subject of much debate. This debate is encouraging research to determine whether or not it is safe to live with constant exposure to EMF (Kheifets and Ritz, 2006). Numerous studies have shown the im- pact of EMF on animals, tissues (Aydin and Akar, 2011; Sonmez et al., 2010), and the functional features of cells (Koch et al., 2003; Liburdy et al., 1993), but the findings are still considered preliminary. In con- trast, many studies have reported therapeutic effects of EMF on various organs and body systems, including reversal of cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease (AD) (Arendash et al., 2010), stimulation of the repair mechanism in bone and cartilage (Bai et al., 2013; Haddad et al., 2007; Trock et al., 1994), wound healing, and nerve regeneration (Mohammadi and Mahmoodzadeh, 2015). Some of the main features of EMF are its frequency and wavelength, both of which interact with living organisms in different ways (Grimes and Grimes, 2002; Panagopoulos et al., 2002). The biological effects of EMF depend on the frequency or wavelength. The purpose of this re- view is to summarize and analyze existing studies that describe the association between EMF and their carcinogenic and genotoxic effects on living organisms. A secondary aim is to contribute to the current debate on the possible impacts of EMF, and whether or not EMF ex- posure is dangerous to humans. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.01.034 Received 21 September 2017; Received in revised form 14 January 2018; Accepted 23 January 2018 ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: adem.kocaman@omu.edu.tr (A. Kocaman). Environmental Research 163 (2018) 71–79 0013-9351/ © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. T