The hazardous nature of small scale underground mining in Ghana K.J. Bansah a,* , A.B. Yalley b , N. Dumakor-Dupey b a Missouri University of Science and Technology, Department of Mining and Nuclear Engineering, Rolla-Missouri, USA b University of Mines and Technology, Department of Mining Engineering, P.O. Box 237, Tarkwa, Ghana article info Article history: Received 7 January 2016 Received in revised form 25 March 2016 Accepted 14 April 2016 Available online 26 April 2016 Keywords: Small scale mining Safety Human health Mercury amalgamation Environment Underground abstract Small scale mining continues to contribute significantly to the growth of Ghana's economy. However, the sector poses serious dangers to human health and the environment. Ground failures resulting from poorly supported stopes have led to injuries and fatalities in recent times. Dust and fumes from drilling and blasting of ore present health threats due to poor ventilation. Four prominent small scale underground mines were studied to identify the safety issues associated with small scale underground mining in Ghana. It is recognized that small scale underground mining in Ghana is inundated with unsafe acts and condi- tions including stope collapse, improper choice of working tools, absence of personal protective equipment and land degradation. Inadequate monitoring of the operations and lack of regulatory enforcement by the Minerals Commission of Ghana are major contrib- uting factors to the environmental, safety and national security issues of the operations. Copyright © 2016 Central Mining Institute in Katowice. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). 1. Introduction Small scale mining (SSM) may refer to the mining of ore de- posits by individuals or groups of persons with little technical know-how and characterized by minimal or no mechaniza- tion. Some countries define SSM operations based on output and human resources needed (Coakley, 1999). However, the definition of SSM in Ghana has been based on the amount of capital and human resources needed. The Minerals and Mining Act 2006 (Act 703) of Ghana defines small scale gold mining operation as the mining of gold by any effective and efficient method that does not involve substantial expenditure by an individual or group of persons not exceeding nine in number or by a co-operative society made up of 10 or more persons. Small scale mining is recognized as a major contributor to national income and a pillar for poverty reduction in developing countries (Hentschel, Hruschka, & Priester, 2003). Small scale mining of minerals such as gold and diamond has provided employment for thousands of Ghanaians, especially indigenes of SSM com- munities, and has made significant contributions to the foreign exchange earnings of the country. In 2014, the sector produced 1.49 million ounces of gold representing 34.3% of Ghana's total gold output (Ntibrey, 2016). The sector has also helped in stemming rural-urban migration, and provided raw * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: kjbt3c@mst.edu (K.J. Bansah), akubayalley@gmail.com (A.B. Yalley), dumakordupey@gmail.com (N. Dumakor- Dupey). Peer review under responsibility of Central Mining Institute in Katowice. HOSTED BY Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jsm journal of sustainable mining 15 (2016) 8 e25 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsm.2016.04.004 2300-3960/Copyright © 2016 Central Mining Institute in Katowice. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).