ANALYSIS Voting on open space: What explains the appearance and support of municipal-level open space conservation referenda in the United States? ☆ Erik Nelson ⁎ , Michinori Uwasu, Stephen Polasky Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota, 1994 Buford Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108, United States ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article history: Received 17 February 2006 Received in revised form 23 May 2006 Accepted 27 July 2006 Available online 18 September 2006 Numerous communities in the United States have been willing to use public funds to protect open space. The amount of money allocated for open space protection by local and state governments exceeds the budget of the largest federal land protection program in the U.S., the Conservation Reserve Program. This paper analyzes what types of municipalities hold open-space referenda and the level of support for these referenda. Factors that increased the probability of a municipality holding an open space referendum from 2000 to 2004 were large population, low population density, rapid growth of the surrounding area, and highly educated and environmentally-concerned residents. Increases in median household income up to $100,000 increased the likelihood of a vote, but further increases in income beyond $100,000 decreased the likelihood. For municipalities holding an open space referendum, factors that increased support for passage of the referendum were rapid growth, low unemployment rates, highly educated residents, and no new taxes. Given high levels of support for open space referenda (76% of municipal-level referenda held from 2000 through 2004 passed) the spatial pattern of locally-managed open space will be largely determined by the factors that affect referenda appearance on a municipal ballot. This conclusion suggests that locally-managed conservation hotspots will cluster around fast- growing affluent communities with highly educated residents. Such hotspots may or may not align with overall conservation priorities. Non-governmental and environmental organizations should focus efforts on helping communities in locally-managed conservation coldspots secure open space. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Open space Referenda Sprawl 1. Introduction Increases in population and economic development have led to declines in open space in the United States, particularly on the fringes of fast-growing metropolitan areas. 1 Regionally, the largest percentage reductions in open space have occurred in the densely populated northeastern portion of the country (see Table 1). In response to losses of open space, many American communities have demonstrated a willingness to spend public funds to protect scarce remaining open space (Myers, 1999). From ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS 62 (2007) 580 – 593 ☆ The authors are, respectively, Ph.D. candidate, Ph.D. candidate, and Fesler-Lampert Professor of Ecological/Environmental Economics. ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 612 804 6523. E-mail addresses: nels1069@umn.edu (E. Nelson), uwasu001@umn.edu (M. Uwasu), polasky@umn.edu (S. Polasky). 1 In this paper, we define open space to include parks and reserves, cropland, pasture, forest, and other undeveloped land. 0921-8009/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.07.027 available at www.sciencedirect.com www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolecon