Fostering argument justification using collaboration scripts and content schemes Birgitta Kopp * , Heinz Mandl Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Leopoldstaße 13, 80802 Munich, Germany Received 4 February 2010; revised 10 February 2011; accepted 19 February 2011 Abstract This study examines the manner in which learners’ justifications for arguments are supported during collaborative task-solving in a virtual learning setting. In particular, it investigates the effects of a collaboration script and a content scheme on the learners’ ability to provide adequate justifications for arguments pertaining to collaborative and individual task solutions. Learners were asked to individually study a theory before working collaboratively on a task in triads via a videoconferencing system. Argument justification was measured with theoretical and task- specific information provided to justify task solutions. Results were the same for collaborative and individual task solutions: The collaboration script had a small effect on justifications with task-specific information while the content scheme had a larger effect on argument justification with theoretical and task-specific information. Thus, according to the specifics of the respective support method, learners applied a strategy for justifying their task solutions in collaboration and individually acquired this strategy. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Justifications for arguments; Collaboration script; Content scheme; Collaborative task-solving 1. Introduction Learning argumentation strategies is an important objective at school or universities. There are several approaches for learning adequate argumentative activities. The most popular idea is the Vygotskian notion of the internalization of social interactions (Schwarz, 2009). In this idea, argumentative collaboration seems to be an effective method of learning argumentation. Argumentation is defined as “a verbal and social activity of reason aimed at increasing (or decreasing) the acceptability of a controversial standpoint for the listener or reader, by putting forward a constellation of propositions intended to justify (or refute) the standpoint before a rational judge” (Van Eemeren, Grootendorst, & Henkemans, 1996, p. 5). In this definition, argumentative reasoning is a necessary pre-condition for convincing other persons. The main strength of argumentative reasoning is the justification of arguments. As arguments are defined as “assertions with accompanying justification” (Kuhn, 1991, p. 12), an argument is a meaningful expression that supports another utterance (Andriessen, Baker, & Suthers, 2003). Justifying points of view is a major factor in convincing collaborating partners of the correctness or adequacy of arguments. Arguments are important for estab- lishing diverse perspectives which are necessary for solving an interdependent task collaboratively (Jonassen, 2000). In analyzing argumentative activities in collaboration, several different methods have been developed. These include the change of viewpoint or attitude, the identification of key argumentative components (like evidence to support claims), or the evaluation of the form of the written text (Schwarz, 2009). In the context of argumentative reasoning, necessary activities for ensuring learning are reflecting on one’s own theory and on the evidence that confirms this theory (Kuhn, Schauble, & Garcia-Mila, 1992) or the examination of evidence for one claim or another (Weinberger, Stegmann, & Fischer, 2010). To provide the correct justification for * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 8921 803 779; fax: þ49 8921 809 93779. E-mail address: birgitta.kopp@psy.lmu.de (B. Kopp). Learning and Instruction 21 (2011) 636e649 www.elsevier.com/locate/learninstruc 0959-4752/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.02.001