IMPLEMENTlNG 1NFORMATlON SYSTEMS zyxwvut 121 z Implementing Information Systems: Some Practical Advice and a Richer Model zy Andrew D. Brown and Hilary Roberts Recent research suggests that implementing information systems presents considerable difficulties and that many implementations are total or partial failures. This paper argues that what both practitioners and students require are richer and more acceptable models of information systems implementation. Accordingly, case study data concerning the intro- duction of manufacturing resource planning (MRP zyxwv 11) are used to illustrate five patterns of behaviour (rites) which capture important social actions; and four components of changing psychological orientation. It is argued that appreciation of the rites and psychological developments identified here will support effective change programmes. Guidelines based on our model are provided for practitioners. Kev Words: Change urocesses, Management of change, Manufacturing Resource Planning, zyx ” zyxw V . Mlir 11. Social and cognitive dimensions of implementation xamination of the various social and E cognitive processes that accompany organizational innovation can result in a greater understanding of the difficulties of implementation. This paper considers social and cognitive dimensions of technologically- based organizational change, with reference to the implementation of large, complex information systems. Exploration of these dimensions helps to explain why some infor- mation systems are accepted and usefully employed in organizations while others fail. The social dimension of change is treated in the form of five patterns of behaviour or ‘rites’. The cognitive changes which accom- pany change processes in organizations are dealt with using Isabella’s (1990) model. These two aspects of change are illustrated using case study data concerned with the introduction of manufacturing resource plan- ing systems (MRP 11). The change processes identified are then mapped on to Lewin’s (1952) force field analysis model of change (unfreezing, experimentation, re-freezing), to construct a more realistic framework for understanding organizational innovation’. This approach supplements the use of critical success factors which are often employed in systems implementation. As with most approaches, critical success factors have limitations, despite providing interest- ing and valuable information to practising managers. Factors are framed at a general level of abstraction, and can omit or obscure specific social and cognitive processes that accompany large scale organizational change. The same is true of simple process models of the innovation process, which Langrish (1988) indicates are inadequate to describe the complexities of technological change. Background information Data concerning implementation of computer integrated manufacturing systems, such as Manufacturing Resource Planning zyxw (MRP 11), were used in this study.2 The data were collected by three researchers from 14 UK companies in a variety of industries, includ- ing electronics, engineering, machinery, chemicals, foods and pharmaceuticals. A mixture of semi-structured and unstructured interviews were conducted with key per- sonnel at intervals over the life of their projects. Interviewees included project leaders and team members, senior managers, users and consultants. The result was a series Change involves patterns of behaviour or ’rites’ 1. ‘Innovation’ is used here in its broad sense of referring to change in organizations. It derives directly from the Schum- peterian model recently outlined in Manirnala (1992) for this publication. Schumpeter covers five areas of entrepreneurial action including ‘The introduction of a new method of production’, that is, one not yet tested by experience in the branch of manufacture concerned, which by no means need be founded upon a scientifically new discovery. 2. MRP II has been defined as an integrated system for planning the activities of all functions of a manufac- turing company (Roberts & Barrar, 1992). Volume 1 Number 3 September 1992