Contents lists available at ScienceDirect International Journal of Drug Policy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/drugpo Research Paper Agricultural innovations in Morocco’s cannabis industry Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy a, ⁎ , Jennifer Macfarlane b a CNRS – Prodig, 2, rue Valette, 75005, Paris, France b Via Antonio Cantore 42, 25128, Brescia, Italy ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Morocco Rif Cannabis Hashish Innovation Modernization ABSTRACT Background: Cannabis cultivation in Morocco’s mountainous Rif region is undergoing its most profound de- velopment since mass production of hashish began in the early 1980s. The adoption of high-yielding varieties of cannabis, modern agricultural practices, and modern hashish production techniques began in the mid–2000s and accelerated after the mid-2010s, with the result that more potent and varied cannabis derivatives are now being produced and that increased quantities of highly potent hashish are seized in Europe. Methods: This research was initiated to answer a simple research question: how, and to what extent, is the illegal cannabis industry modernizing in Morocco, now that we know that it explains the THC increase in hashish seized in Europe? To answer this question in the context of a lack of literature and quantitative data, empirical fieldwork was undertaken in cannabis fields and hashish-producing farms in Morocco in July and October 2017. A mostly qualitative approach to data collection was employed through participatory rural appraisals (discus- sions, interviews, direct observations). As such, this work builds predominantly upon primary research. Results: Fieldwork showed that, subsequent to very localized, experimental beginnings in the early 2000s, the progressive and varied adoption of agricultural innovations at the cultivation and production stages has spread throughout the Rif during the 2010s. Interviews and direct observations conducted in the field indicate that the ongoing adoption of modern farming techniques has enabled the production of high-quality hashish and potent modern extracts. The still ongoing modernization and professionalization of the Moroccan cannabis industry is a testimony of the country’s leading position in global hashish production. Conclusion: What the future holds for Moroccan cannabis growers is difficult to predict. How legalization pro- cesses manifest themselves in Moroccan and European policies, and how upcoming developments will affect the social, economic, political and ecological stability of the region, remains largely unknown. However, the spread of cannabis cultivation in the Rif is clearly pushing economic and environmental limits, and there is an obvious need for innovations that mitigate such pressures. Introduction Cannabis cultivation in the northern Rif region of Morocco is cur- rently undergoing its most significant evolution since the hashish in- dustry emerged in the 1960s and dramatically developed in the 1980s (Chouvy & Afsahi, 2014; Clarke, 1998). By the 1990s, the country had reportedly overtaken Afghanistan as the world’s largest hashish pro- ducer (UNODC, 2003). Now, as shown by what was documented during our recent fieldwork there, Morocco’s cannabis industry is transforming once more, following the introduction of feminized 1 seed varieties in the late 1990s, the subsequent development of greatly-improved culti- vation methods, and the production of high-potency modern extracts in the 2010s. This article is the result of a research that was initiated to answer a simple question: how, and to what extent, is the illegal can- nabis industry modernizing in Morocco, now that we know (Chouvy & Afsahi, 2014) that it explains the THC 2 increase in hashish seized in Europe? As a result, this article is the first to describe and explain in details how cannabis cultivation and hashish extraction techniques are being modernized in Morocco, something that is still largely ignored by officials, academics, and journalists. Morocco’s traditional kif landrace was reportedly supplanted in the early 1980s by low-water-use varieties from the Near East and is probably long gone (Bellakhdar, 2008: 230). These varieties would become the new Moroccan cultivar and are still called kif even though https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.04.013 Received 14 December 2017; Received in revised form 22 March 2018; Accepted 16 April 2018 ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: pachouvy@geopium.org (P.-A. Chouvy), admin@seshatasensi.com (J. Macfarlane). 1 Regular cannabis seeds produce approximately 50% male and 50% female plants. In order to maximize female plants (they produce much more psychoactive substances than male plants) cannabis seeds that generated 95%+ female plants were created in the late 1990s. 2 Delta-9 THC, the cannabinoid responsible for most of the psychoactive effects of cannabis. International Journal of Drug Policy 58 (2018) 85–91 0955-3959/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. T