1 Probing Flow Activity in Polyamide Layer of Reverse Osmosis Membrane with Nanoparticle Tracers Yuqiong Li, a Michał M. Kłosowski, b Catriona M. McGilvery, b Alexandra E. Porter, b Andrew G. Livingston, a and João T. Cabral a * a Department of Chemical Engineering, b Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ *Email: j.cabral@imperial.ac.uk, Tel: +44 207 594 5571 Keywords: thin film composite, reverse osmosis, nanoparticles, and characterization Abstract We investigate the flow activity of the nanostructured polyamide layer in reverse osmosis (RO) membrane, using gold nanoparticle (NP) tracers of 1-40 nm diameter. Following a detailed structural examination of a commercial SW30RH membrane selected for this study, NP solutions were infiltrated from either the polyamide front or the polysulfone support side. The permeate was then analyzed spectroscopically while the entrapment of NPs within the membrane was mapped by high resolution electron microscopy. Results show that back-filtered NPs exhibited a fractionated distribution according to size: 1 nm nanoparticles permeate across the polyamide- polysulfone interface reaching the interior of the polyamide corrugations, while the larger ones (>10 nm) are retained within the polysulfone and gradually arrested at approximately 100 nm below the polyamide-polysulfone interface. Intermediate-sized 5 nm nanoparticles reached the undulating folds just below the polyamide layer. Permeation pathways across polyamide layer appear to exclude all tracers above 1 nm, which become selectively distributed across the polyamide layer: positively charged NPs label the outer surface of the polyamide film (expected to be carboxylate-rich), while negatively charged particles are uniformly distributed within the layer. Diafiltration measurements quantify the transient kinetics of NP retention and permeation. Overall, our results establish the flow activity of the polyamide nodular surface and provide estimates for the dimensions of permeation pathways. 1. Introduction Reverse Osmosis (RO) is widely recognized for its low energy usage and reduced environmental footprint, and is thus employed in sea water desalination and industrial water purification. 1,2 Within the oil and gas industry, low-salinity water obtained by RO is extensively used in offshore drilling to increase oil recovery from sandstone reservoirs. 3,4 A typical RO membrane is a composite structure comprising a layer of fully cross-linked aromatic polyamide (PA) nanofilm, a porous polysulfone (PSf) support layer and a polyester (PET) fabric backing layer. The PA layer has an overall