God's fishes: religion, culture and freshwater fish conservation in India N ISHIKANT G UPTA ,A RUN K ANAGAVEL ,P ARINEETA D ANDEKAR N EELESH D AHANUKAR ,K UPPUSAMY S IVAKUMAR V INOD B. M ATHUR and R AJEEV R AGHAVAN Abstract Indigenous communities worldwide have long re- lied on their environment for survival. Religious and cus- tomary beliefs that foster community conservation have not only bound these communities to ecosystems but also assisted in the conservation of species. We provide an ex- ample of how religion fosters the conservation of freshwater fishes in India. Since ancient times rural communities in India have revered fish species as symbols of divine power, and offered them protection in pools associated with tem- ples. Such voluntary, informal institutions and arrange- ments continue to help conserve several freshwater fish species that are otherwise subjected to anthropogenic pres- sure in open-access areas. However, religious beliefs in India are waning as a result of increased urbanization, moderniza- tion of societies and disintegration of rural communities, and the sustainability of existing temple and community fish sanctuaries is questionable. We discuss the role of tem- ple sanctuaries as an informal conservation strategy for freshwater fishes, and discuss the knowledge and policy gaps that need to be addressed for ensuring their future. Keywords Beliefs, Buddhism, fish, Hinduism, mahseer, sa- cred, taboos, temple sanctuaries Introduction R eligion is a powerful facilitator of the evolution of pro- social behaviour in human society (Norenzayan & Shariff, ). In many countries religious beliefs have de- termined local resource use and facilitated the protection of species and ecosystems (Colding & Folke, ; Anthwal et al., ), governed to an extent by the voluntary involve- ment of local stakeholders. Although religious adherents are distributed unequally in relation to areas important for glo- bal biodiversity, in India there is an overlap between such areas and the religions of Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam (Mikusiński et al., ). Circa  billion people in countries with biodiversity hotspots follow an organized religion, and these countries generally have low ecological footprints, with nearly % of people utilizing ,  global hectares per person (Bhagwat et al., ; WWF, ). In promoting environmental conservation this association provides an opportunity to work together that is more persuasive than the scientific importance of species (Bhagwat & Palmer, ). Sacred species and sites are also concentrated in biodiversity-rich nations; in India, for example, there are c.  groups of sacred animals (e.g. lizards, snakes, frogs; Krishna, ), and more informal sacred sites than formal protected areas (Kala, ; Rutte, ). India is home to numerous religious groups, indigenous communities, ethnic groups and regional cultures, each with their own beliefs and taboos (Sinha, ; Kanagavel et al., ). Religions have long advocated care and passion for nature and the environment, resulting in protection of forest areas, aquatic bodies and various species (Yachkaschi & Yachkaschi, ). In Hinduism many species are consid- ered sacred because of their association with gods and god- desses. Lord Shiva (the destroyer), one of the three main deities of Hinduism, is represented with a spectacled cobra Naja naja around his neck, signifying that he has conquered death, and also representing dormant energy (kundalini). Lord Krishna is one of the  incarnations of Lord Vishnu (the protector), another of the three main Hindu deities. In Hindu mythology Lord Krishna is known for his fondness for butter, and one story tells how he hid stolen butter rolled within a leaf of the sacred fig Ficus religiosa. Basil Ocimum sanctum, known locally as tulsi, is also worshipped as a sacred plant, a favourite of Lord Vishnu; the annual ritual Tulsi Vivaha coincides with the start of the Indian marriage season. Many faunal species are revered as vahanas, or vehicles that carry or transport gods and goddesses. The tiger is as- sociated with the goddess Durga (the invincible), the pea- cock with Karthikeya (god of war), the owl and elephant with Lakshmi (goddess of wealth, love and prosperity), and crocodiles with the goddess Ganga (the sacred river). NISHIKANT GUPTA (Corresponding author) Department of Geography, King’s College London, UK. E-mail nishikantgupta@live.in ARUN KANAGAVEL and RAJEEV RAGHAVAN* Conservation Research Group, St. Albert’s College, Kochi, India PARINEETA DANDEKAR South Asia Network for Dams, Rivers and People, Delhi, India NEELESH DAHANUKAR Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune, India KUPPUSAMY SIVAKUMAR Department of Endangered Species Management, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India VINOD MATHUR Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India *Also at: School of Fisheries Resource Management, Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies, Kochi, India Received  February . Revision requested  April . Accepted  May . First published online  September . Oryx, 2016, 50(2), 244–249 © 2015 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605315000691 . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605315000691 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 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