1 Norms and Diplomacy: The Diplomatic Underpinnings of Multilateralism Geoffrey Wiseman Multilateralism is a primary, interrelated norm of diplomatic culture, along with use of force only as a last resort and in self-defense, continuous bilateral dialogue between ocially recognized representatives, dialogue that is as open and trans- parent as possible, and civility and tact as the essence of diplomatic discourse. Part of the diculty in understanding multilateralism’s diplomatic underpinnings, or foundational assumptions, is that multilateralism is what constructivist theorists call a taken-for-granted norm (Finnemore and Sikkink 1998). In other words, aspects of the multilateral norm have become so deeply internalized that we no longer appreciate their causative and constitutive effects (Wiseman 2005, 415; cf. Mearsheimer 1994/1995). To gain an understanding of the diplomatic underpinnings of multilateralism, I address four speciﬁc questions: 1. How has multilateralism been conceptualized in the ﬁeld of diplomatic studies? 2. How has the evolution of the institution of diplomacy (in the modern sense) deﬁned the operation and/or development of multilateralism? 3. Are there signiﬁcant changes in the perception and/or practice of multi- lateralism within diplomatic studies? 4. How has diplomatic studies responded to the debate about the chang- ing role(s) of states, nonstate actors, and international secretariats? 5 9780813344812_text_muldoon 5/5/10 12:31 AM Page 5