Original article Depression Trajectories of Antenatally Depressed and Nondepressed Young Mothers: Implications for Child Socioemotional Development Maryna Raskin, PhD a, * , M. Ann Easterbrooks, PhD b , Renee S. Lamoreau, BA a , Chie Kotake, PhD a , Jessica Goldberg, PhD a a Tufts Interdisciplinary Evaluation Research, Medford, Massachusetts b Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Study and Human Development, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts Article history: Received 18 June 2015; Received in revised form 25 January 2016; Accepted 5 February 2016 abstract Objectives: This study explores the longitudinal trajectories of depressive symptoms in young mothers and investigate the consequences of maternal depression for children’s birth outcomes and behavioral adjustment. Hypothesis: Antenatal depression puts children of young mothers at risk for adjustment difficulties by adversely impacting birth outcomes and maternal symptoms after birth. Methods: Data were drawn from a three-wave randomized, controlled trial of a statewide home visiting program for young primiparous women. A subsample of women (n ¼ 400) who were prenatal at intake was used in the analysis. Mothers were divided into an antenatally depressed group (ADG; 40%) and a healthy group (HG) based on their symptoms at intake. Mothers reported depressive symptoms at intake and 12- and 24-month follow-up, and filled out a checklist of child behavior problems at 24 months follow-up. Perinatal and birth outcomes were derived from the Electronic Birth Certificate collected by the State Department of Public Health at discharge from the hospital. Results: ADG and HG had similar pregnancy characteristics and birth outcomes, but ADG reported more child behavioral problems. Multigroup latent growth curve analysis provided evidence for distinct depression trajectories. A mediation hypothesis was not supported. In both groups, steeper increase in symptoms over time predicted more mother-reported child behavioral problems. Conclusions: Findings are consistent with studies linking antenatal depression with post-birth symptoms, underscoring the importance of prenatal screening for depression. Copyright Ó 2016 by the Jacobs Institute of Women’s Health. Published by Elsevier Inc. Depression after childbirth is a major public health concern, affecting 13% of women, with estimates ranging from 3% to 25% (Surkan, Gottlieb, McCormick, Hunt, & Peterson, 2012). Maternal depression interferes with parenting and increases the risk for cognitive, emotional and behavioral problems among children (Apter-Levy, Feldman, Vakart, Ebstein, & Feldman, 2013). Spe- cifically, depression may detrimentally affect parenting beliefs and behaviors, including safety and preventive health practices (Field, 2010). Infants of depressed mothers are more likely to have emotion regulation difficulties, for example, low responsiveness to voices and faces, greater distress and physical withdrawal, and oppositional behaviors (Field, Diego, & Hernandez-Reif, 2009). By the age of 2 years, children of depressed mothers exhibit more externalizing behaviors (Foster, Garber, & Durlak, 2008). Most women diagnosed with postpartum depression (PPD) experienced the onset of symptoms during or even before pregnancy (Wisner et al., 2013). A large body of literature on antenatal depression (AD) has found it to be a powerful predictor of both PPD and compromised child development (Figueiredo & Conde, 2011; Munoz, Agruss, Haeger, & Sivertsen, 2006). Some effects on child development attributed to PPD may, in part, be caused by depressive symptoms during pregnancy (Deave, Heron, Evans, & Emond, 2008). AD has been found to expose the fetus to a number of adverse factors, such as hypersecretion Funding sources: The Massachusetts Children’s Trust; Pew Center for the States. No conflicts of interest have been noted by any of the authors. * Correspondence to: Maryna Raskin, PhD, Tufts Interdisciplinary Evaluation Research, 574 Boston Avenue, Medford, MA 02155. Phone: þ1 (617) 817-4954; fax: þ1 (617) 627-3625. E-mail address: maryna.raskin@tufts.edu (M. Raskin). www.whijournal.com 1049-3867/$ - see front matter Copyright Ó 2016 by the Jacobs Institute of Women’s Health. Published by Elsevier Inc. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.whi.2016.02.002 Women's Health Issues xxx-xx (2016) 1–7