Power, Participation, and Inflexible Institutions: An Examination of the Challenges to Community Empowerment in Participatory GIS Applications PETER A. KWAKU KYEM Department of Geography / Central Connecticut State University / New Britain / CT / USA Abstract Participatory GIS ( PGIS) applications provide tools that allow underprivileged groups to make a case for rec- ognition, participation, and political access. These com- munity-based applications have therefore become the focal point for claims about public participation and em- powerment. However, empowerment is a difficult and complex process necessitating the transformation of bu- reaucratic organizations into flexible institutions that ad- dress the concerns of marginalized groups in society. This process involves shifts in power relations during which PGIS organizations confront deeply embedded structures and vested political interests. Opposition from local lead- ers, unfamiliar customs and rituals, and lack of infra- structure and skilled GIS personnel impede successful participation and empowerment. Additionally, reliance on external sources of funding and expertise for PGIS projects severely limits their long-term sustainability. To date, PGIS applications have produced case studies about attempts to empower communities, but few studies have focused on how the community-based organizations and the contexts of PGIS applications mediate the community empowerment process. This article explores ways in which the internal and external environments of a PGIS organization influence the community empowerment process. Experiences from PGIS studies in southern Gha- na are used to illustrate the constraints that these factors impose on community empowerment. Introduction C onvinced of the capabilities of geographic infor- mation system (GIS) and related computer tech- nologies to democratize production and uses of data and also to boost a community's quest for participa- tion and empowerment, development scientists, advo- cates, and experts have recently implemented GIS projects in city neighbourhoods, villages, and local com- Peter A. Kwaku Kyem, PhD, is Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Central Connecticut State University, 1615 Stanley Street, New Britain, CT 06050 USA. E-mail: kyemn@mail.ccsu.edu. munities throughout the world. Today, GIS is employed m several research and application projects that also in- corporate community participation. This new initiative in cis applications has come to be known by various names, including participatory GIS (PGIS). According to Craig and Elwood (1998), community-based organiza- tions adopt GIS for several reasons, including (a) for ad- ministration (e.g., program evaluation), (b) for strategic purposes such as the assessment of local or neighbour- hood needs, (c) for organizing (e.g., recruitment of members), and (d) for tactical reasons, such as in coun- ter-mapping and the representation of local knowledge. Other uses of the technology include managing local re- sources and resolving conflicts over resource allocation. Some reported case studies include the use of GIS by advocates to help indigenous groups in North America redefine boundaries and reclaim their ancestral lands (Beltgens 1995; Poole 1995; Smith 1995). Other PGIS applications have focused on social narratives and re- cording local knowledge to enhance community partici- pation and control over local resources (Harris, Weiner, and Levin 1995; Jordan 2002; Kyem 2002; Weiner, Har- ris, and Levin 1995) and to make a case for the inclusion and recognition of the rights of indigenous people (Arvello-Jimenez and Conn 1995; Forbes 1995; Jarvis and Stearman 1995; Laituri 2002; Nietschmann 1995). Some community-based GIS organizations are using the technology in neighbourhood revitalization and urban planning projects (Aitken and Michel 1995; Craig and Elwood 1998; Elwood 2002b; Chose 1999; Chose and Huxhold 2001; Sawicki and Burke 2002) and to promote environmental equity within grassroots environmental organizations (Meredith, Yetman, and Frias 2002; Sieber 2000b, 2002; Tulloch 2002). Developed to assist communities that would otherwise be excluded from GIS usage and hence lose out in public policy debates that involve some GIS applications, the PGIS initiative has sought to develop a system that will be adaptable to input "from regular citizens and other non- official sources" (Obermeyer 1998, 65). The initiative emerged from responses by advocates and communities to perceived shortcomings in the ability of GIS to create equitable access to information and technology and to CARTOGRAPHICA, VOLUME 38. # 3&4. FALL/WINTER 2001 (PUBLISHED MARCH 2004) 5 http://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/2J31-4648-6P62-6P78 - Friday, June 03, 2016 5:32:33 AM - IP Address:188.72.127.33