Indoor metallic pollution related to mining activity in the Bolivian Altiplano Francisco E Fontúrbel a, * , Enio Barbieri b , Cristian Herbas c , Flavia L Barbieri b, d , Jacques Gardon b, d a Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile b IRD-HSM (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement), La Paz, Bolivia c Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, IGEMA Institute (Instituto de Investigaciones Geológicas y del Medio Ambiente), La Paz, Bolivia d Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, SELADIS Institute (Instituto de Servicios de Laboratorio para el Diagnóstico e Investigación en Salud), La Paz, Bolivia article info Article history: Received 31 December 2010 Received in revised form 26 April 2011 Accepted 29 April 2011 Keywords: Geostatistical analysis Household dust Human exposure Metallic trace element Mining pollution abstract The environmental pollution associated with mining and metallurgical activities reaches its greatest extent in several Andean cities and villages. Many locations in this area have accumulated through centuries a large amount of mining wastes, often disregarding the magnitude of this situation. However, in these naturally mineralized regions, there is little information available stating the exact role of mining and metallurgical industries in urban pollution. In this study, we demonstrated that the various metallic elements present in indoor dust (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Sb, Sn, Zn) had a common origin and this contamination was increased by the proximity to the mines. Lead dust concentration was found at concerning levels for public health. In addition, wrong behaviors such as carrying mining workwear home contributed to this indoor dust pollution. Consequently, the constant exposure of the population could represent a potential health hazard for vulnerable groups, especially children. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Altiplanic regions in South America are naturally rich in poly- metallic deposits (Clark et al., 1990), which is why mining and metallurgical activities play a fundamental role in the economy of these populations. In the Bolivian Altiplano mining has been an essential activity since pre-Colonial times (Abbott and Wolfe, 2003) and many villages, towns and even cities were developed in close proximity to the mines and smelters. In the last years, in spite of the strong variations in the trading value of base metals, the global demand still stands. As a consequence, extractive activities are currently intense even at several formerly abandoned mines. For economic, political, and social reasons, there is little or no control over the consequent contamination. The mining wastes create a perma- nent source of pollution (Miller et al., 2004; Reif et al., 1989; Smolders et al., 2003), especially in these arid and windy regions where metallic elements deposited in soils can be easily dispersed through air. In the Oruro mining district, where numerous mines and large smelters are currently in activity, the environmental contamination by a complex cocktail of Pb, Sn, Sb, As, Cd, and other elements is known (Díaz-Barriga et al., 1997a, 1997b; PPO, 1997). The conse- quences of chronic exposure to these metallic elements are potentially dangerous for children and women of childbearing age (Calderón et al., 2001; Díaz-Barriga et al., 1997a; Koller et al., 2004; Landrigan et al., 2004; Lidsky and Schneider, 2003). Hand- to-mouth dust ingestion constitutes an important pathway of exposure especially for toddlers and young children. As a conse- quence, metallic element concentration in indoor dust is crucial in describing the risk of exposure. Our study aimed to verify the existence of a significantly higher household contamination in a Bolivian mining town, comparing indoor dust trace element concentrations obtained from the mining district and from a peripheral district, relatively far from mining or metallurgical activities. 2. Material and methods 2.1. Study area The city of Oruro (17.97  Se67.10  W; Fig. 1) is located in the central Bolivian Altiplanic region, at 3700 m of altitude above sea level. Oruro city has 220,000 inhabitants (w2.4% of the Bolivian population, according to the National 2001 Census: INE, 2001), mainly dedicated to mining and metallurgical activities and trading (Langer, 2009; Montes de Oca, 1997). Because of its location at the topmost of the Altiplano, Oruro is a windy city. According to the Bolivian Meteorological Service, the average of daily maximum wind speeds was w15 km/h in 2006 (SENAMHI, 2011), reaching annual maximum wind speeds around w37 km/h from 2001 to 2010. The total annual precipitation for the same decade was w400 mm, with a remarkable difference between the rainy season (w250 mm from December to February) and the dry season (w11 mm from May to July). In the arid environment of the Altiplano, the vegetation coverage of the soil is rather scarce. Additionally, its location near several mining centers (which usually do not properly cover residual materials, storage facilities, and trucks) and sand dunes makes Oruro a dusty city. Those are risk factors for the metallic elements widespread. * Corresponding author. E-mail address: fonturbel@ug.uchile.cl (F.E. Fontúrbel). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Environmental Pollution journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envpol 0269-7491/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2011.04.039 Environmental Pollution 159 (2011) 2870e2875