Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and Alternative Flame Retardants in Air and Precipitation Samples from the Northern Lake Victoria Region, East Africa Kenneth Arinaitwe,* ,† Derek C. G. Muir, ‡ Bernard T. Kiremire, † Phil Fellin, § Henrik Li, § and Camilla Teixeira ‡ † Department of Chemistry, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda ‡ Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada § AirZoneOne Inc., Mississauga, Ontario, Canada * S Supporting Information ABSTRACT: High volume air and precipitation samples were collected close to the shore of Lake Victoria at Entebbe, Uganda, between October 2008 and July 2010 inclusive. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and alternative flame retardants (AFRs) were analyzed by GC-MS. BDEs 47, 99, and 209 were the predominant PBDEs with mean concentrations (in air) of 9.84, 4.38, 8.27 pg m -3 and mean fluxes in precipitation of 3.40, 6.23, and 7.82 ng m -2 sample -1 , respectively. 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE), and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), anti- and syn- dechlorane plus were detected at levels comparable with those of PBDEs. Both PBDEs and AFRs in air generally increased from 2008 to 2010. Elevated PBDE concentrations in air were associated with slow moving low altitude air masses from the region immediately adjacent to the lake, while low concentrations were mostly associated with fast moving westerly and southwesterly air masses. Analysis of the octa- and nona-BDE profiles suggested photolysis and pyrolytic debromination of BDE-209 in the air samples. The highly halogenated and most abundant PBDEs and AFRs in air also predominated in precipitation samples. This is the first study to report flame retardants in high volume air samples and precipitation in Equatorial Africa. ■ INTRODUCTION Flame retardants are added to commercial products such as furniture, electrical equipment, and fabrics to increase fire resistance. Historically, brominated flame retardants (BFRs) were the most used organic flame retardants, especially, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), which were commercially produced, mainly, as penta-BDE, octa-BDE, and deca-BDE mixtures. 1,2 PBDEs exhibit environmental behavior similar to that of the PCBs and other legacy persistent organic pollutants (POPs), characterized by persistence, bioaccumula- tion, lipophilicity, and semivolatility, 1 and can undergo long- range atmospheric transport (LRAT) from source regions to remote locations. The penta-BDE and octa-BDE mixtures are among the new chemicals whose production and use are banned under the Stockholm Convention on POPs. 3 The atmospheric trends of the congeners in the penta- and octa- BDE products have generally shown a decline while the BDE- 209 levels remain elevated, especially in Europe 4 and North America. 2 Although the use of penta- and octa-BDEs in consumer products as fire retardants has been long stopped in most developed countries, these chemicals continue to be frequently detected in atmospheric and other environmental samples in the same countries. This suggests possible current release of these chemicals, through various processes, from the products in which they were applied, as well as LRAT. In Africa, like most developing country regions, the increasing amount of e-waste from old electrical and electronic equipment shipped in from developed countries, coupled with poor recycling and disposal techniques (such as open burning and damping at poorly or nonconstructed landfill sites or even in surface water bodies) represent another major potential source of increased PBDEs and related chemicals in the local environment. 5-8 Recycling in Uganda has been reported for plastics and metals while there is no evidence for formal recycling of BFR containing waste. 9 Uganda passed legislation to regulate the Received: August 13, 2013 Revised: January 6, 2014 Accepted: January 8, 2014 Article pubs.acs.org/est © XXXX American Chemical Society A dx.doi.org/10.1021/es403600a | Environ. Sci. Technol. XXXX, XXX, XXX-XXX