Comparative effects of brown and golden flaxseeds on body composition, inflammation and bone remodelling biomarkers in perimenopausal overweight women q Carla Mora Aguilar a , Cíntia Tomaz Sant’Ana b , André Gustavo Vasconcelos Costa a,b , Pollyanna Ibrahim Silva a,c , Neuza Maria Brunoro Costa a,b,⇑ a Postgraduate Program in Food Science and Technology, Centre of Agricultural and Engineering Sciences, Federal University of Espirito Santo (Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo – UFES), Alegre, ES, Brazil b Department of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Centre of Exact, Natural and Health Sciences, UFES, Alegre, ES, Brazil c Department of Food Engineering, Centre of Agricultural and Engineering Sciences, UFES, Alegre, ES, Brazil article info Article history: Received 26 December 2016 Received in revised form 13 March 2017 Accepted 17 March 2017 Keywords: Menopause Flaxseed Body composition Cytokines Bone metabolism abstract Flaxseed may improve the adverse effects of the lack of oestrogens. This study compared the effects of brown and golden flaxseed intake on body composition, inflammation and bone biomarkers in over- weight perimenopausal women. The participants were divided into groups: control, brown, and golden flaxseed and received a calorie-restricted diet plan of 250 kcal per day. The brown and golden flaxseed groups consumed 40 g of the respective flaxseed per day for 12 weeks. Both flaxseeds reduced waist cir- cumference, but the golden flaxseed also reduced body weight, body mass index, and fat mass. Flaxseed supplementation, irrespective to the variety, had no significant effect on pro-inflammatory (TNF-a, IL-1b, and IL-6) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) biomarkers, hormones (25(OH)D 3 and 17b-oestradiol) or on the bone formation (osteocalcin) and resorption (N-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen - NTX-I) biomark- ers. Brown flaxseed was less effective than the golden flaxseed in modifying body composition of peri- menopausal women. Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Perimenopause comprises the period from the beginning of the first changes in the menstrual cycle up to 12 months after the per- manent cessation of menses, which usually occurs after 40 years of age. This period is characterised by a decrease in ovarian hormonal secretion, resulting in significant physiological changes that may contribute to the development of several complications in women’s health, such as increased fat mass and bone loss, which may result in increased risk of bone fracture, and osteoporosis (Mendoza et al., 2013; Munir et al., 2012; Zhao et al., 2007). Menopause and ageing are considered the main risk factors associated with reduced bone mass and non-communicable dis- eases (NCD) (Pinheiro et al., 2010). According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2003), osteoporosis affects approximately 70% of women with advanced age and approximately 75 million people in Europe, Japan, and the United States, causing more than 2.3 mil- lion fractures each year in Europe. The latest epidemiological study on osteoporosis conducted in Brazil showed that 11.5% of Brazilian women over 40 years of age suffered fractures due to bone fragility and 33% had osteoporosis (Pinheiro et al., 2010). Moreover, 121,000 hip fractures are estimated to occur per year due to osteo- porosis in the Brazilian population, with projections of 140,000 fractures in 2020 (International Osteoporosis Foundation, 2012). The high prevalence of osteoporosis and its consequences raised the interest for preventive strategies to reduce the metabolic com- plications resulting from oestrogen deficiency, such as increased visceral fat deposition and oxidative stress. These complications can cause endothelial dysfunction, vascular inflammation, and increased risk of cardiovascular diseases (Al-Anazi, Qureshi, Javaid, & Qureshi, 2011; Dubey, Imthurn, Barton, & Jackson, 2005; Mittal & Kant, 2009; Rosano, Vitale, Marazzi, & Volterrani, 2007), in addition to changes in bone metabolism that favour a http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2017.03.037 1756-4646/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. q All authors contributed substantially in terms of conception and design of the study, generation, collection, analysis and interpretation of data, drafting, critical reviewing and editing subsequent versions of the manuscript. The authors approved the final version of the manuscript and declare no conflict of interest. ⇑ Corresponding author at: Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Centro de Ciências Exatas, Departamento de Farmácia e Nutrição, Alto Universitário, 29500- 000 Alegre, ES, Brazil. E-mail address: neuzambc@gmail.com (N.M.B. Costa). Journal of Functional Foods 33 (2017) 166–175 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Functional Foods journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jff