Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Process Biochemistry journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/procbio Review Perspectives of nanobiotechnology and biomacromolecules in parkinson’s disease Hussaini Adam a , Subash C.B. Gopinath a,b, ⁎ , M.K. Md Arshad a,c , Tijjani Adam d , Uda Hashim a a Institute of Nano Electronic Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, 01000, Kangar, Perlis, Malaysia b School of Bioprocess Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, 02600, Arau, Perlis, Malaysia c School of Microelectronic Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Pauh Putra, Arau, 02600, Perlis, Malaysia d Faculty of Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Kampus Uniciti Alam Sg. Chuchuh, 02100 Padang Besar (U), Perlis, Malaysia ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Parkinson’s disease Biomolecule Diagnosis Neurodegeneration ABSTRACT The universal burden of Parkinson’s disease (PD) has more than doubled over the past generation due to the increasing numbers of elderly individuals, with possible contributions from extended disease duration and en- vironmental factors. PD affects the basal ganglia and the substantia nigra in deep parts of the brain. The nerve cells in the substantia nigra produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, which is responsible for the movement of the body. When PD affects the basal ganglia and the substantia nigra in the brain, there is abnormal neuro- transmission in the body, leading to speech impairment, slowness of movement (bradykinesia), balance disorder, postural instability, tremor, and muscle rigidity. Even though the cause of this disease is still unknown, some studies revealed that α-synuclein is a major constituent of Lewy bodies, protein clumps that are the pathological hallmark of PD. Furthermore, different lines of research are under investigation with the involvement of other biological macromolecules, such as microRNA and DNA. Therefore, this paper reviews the current states and perspectives on PD, including its nature, features, and management, and the methods available to predict PD. The essence of this review is that PD requires more investigation and the development of suitable technologies to provide assistance to PD patients to improve their life. 1. Introduction Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most serious neurodegenera- tive diseases apart from Alzheimer's disease, with more than 6.3 million people suffering from this chronic disease worldwide [1]. The main clinical symptoms of PD were first described by James Parkinson in his classic monograph “An Essay on the Shaking Palsy” [2]. PD is a chronic disease with both motor and nonmotor symptoms [3]. Fatigue is one of the severe symptoms for people with PD [4]. Caregivers play an es- sential role in keeping persons with PD comfortable, but as the symp- toms of PD advance into mid-stage, the duties and the burden of caregivers considerably increase, possibly making them uncomfortable [5]. The motor symptoms of PD are characterized by the loss of dopa- minergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the brain, though the ex- istence of nonmotor symptoms correspondingly supports the neuronal loss in nondopaminergic areas [6]. Dopamine-producing nerve cells in the substantia nigra of the human brain are selectively vulnerable; therefore, as the severity of PD advances, the neurons in the brain will eventually die (Fig. 1a). Parkinsonism is a complex terminology or term that is utilized to express motor features such as tremor, slowness of movement, rigidity, and postural instability [7]. PD is the reason be- hind the clinical syndrome Parkinsonism, although there are other causes, such as diseases that imitate PD and drug-induced side effects [7]. PD is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects nerve cells in the brain that are responsible for the mobility of the body [3]. The three fundamental motor symptoms are slowness of movement, tremor, and muscle rigidity [8]. The degeneration of neurons as a result of PD also occurs in the normal aging process, and the different causes involved in the etiology of this disease are also involved in aging [9]. The brain comprises various dopamine pathways that play a major role in several activities, such as movement, and when PD attacks a nerve cell or a brain cell, dopamine levels decline, leading to difficulties in movement and other disorders (Fig. 1b). Dopamine is a chemical substance in the brain that functions as a neurotransmitter to send signals to other nerve cells to produce smooth movement. The loss of dopamine in the brain results in impaired https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2019.07.019 Received 16 March 2019; Received in revised form 21 June 2019; Accepted 22 July 2019 ⁎ Corresponding author at: Institute of Nano Electronic Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, 01000, Kangar, Perlis, Malaysia. E-mail address: subash@unimap.edu.my (S.C.B. Gopinath). Process Biochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 1359-5113/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Please cite this article as: Hussaini Adam, et al., Process Biochemistry, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2019.07.019