Extending antecedents of achievement goals: The double-edged sword effect of social-oriented achievement motive and gender differences Youyan Nie ⁎, Gregory Arief D. Liem ⁎ Psychological Studies Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore abstract article info Article history: Received 21 March 2012 Received in revised form 10 August 2012 Accepted 9 October 2012 Keywords: Achievement motive Achievement goal orientations Gender differences Underpinned by the hierarchical model of approach and avoidance motivation, the study examined the differen- tial relations of individual-oriented and social-oriented achievement motives to approach and avoidance achievement goals (mastery-approach, performance-approach, mastery-avoidance, performance-avoidance). A total of 570 Chinese high school students participated in this study. Path analysis was conducted and gender differences were also examined. The results from both boys and girls samples converged: individual-oriented achievement motive was a positive predictor of only the two approach goals, whereas social-oriented achieve- ment motive was a positive predictor of both approach and avoidance goals. These findings hold important ap- plied implications for parents and teachers in enhancing their children's/students' academic motivation. © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. In the past two decades, achievement goals have been a central con- struct in the study of student motivation because of their associations with key motivational, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes (e.g., Åge, 2011; Elliot, 2006; Gonida, Voulala, & Kiosseoglou, 2009; Kaplan & Maehr, 2007; Kim & Chung, 2012; Polychroni, Hatzichristou, & Sideridis, 2012; Steinmayr, Bipp, & Spinath, 2011). Based on a frame of reference that individuals use to gauge their competence, achieve- ment goal pioneers (e.g., Ames, 1984; Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1979) proposed that performance goals focus on the demonstration of compe- tence relative to others (other-referenced), whereas mastery goals focus on the development of competence and mastery of tasks (task-referenced). Thus, in the early achievement goal theory, task and others were the two main reference points to gauge competence. Subsequently, Elliot (1999) incorporated the ‘classic’ approach- avoidance differentiation of motivation and proposed a 2×2 achieve- ment goal framework, comprising the following goals: (a) mastery- approach goals, emphasizing learning new knowledge and improving skills; (b) mastery-avoidance goals, emphasizing the avoidance of losing skills and competence; (c) performance-approach goals, emphasizing the demonstration of one's superiority over others; and (d) performance-avoidance goals, emphasizing the avoidance of looking incompetence relative to others. The incorporation of the approach-avoidance dimensions in achieve- ment goal constructs is fundamental to the study of student motivation, particularly in understanding their antecedents and consequences. One of the major reviews by Moller and Elliot (2006), for example, suggested that cognitive and motivational consequences of mastery-approach goals are generally positive, those of performance-approach goals are also adaptive in many instances, whereas those of both mastery- avoidance and performance-avoidance goals are typically inimical. Accordingly, identifying antecedents of approach and avoidance achieve- ment goals is an important research focus in student motivation, espe- cially as far as its educational implications are concerned. Underpinned by the hierarchical model of approach and avoidance motivation (Elliot, 2006), the present study seeks to extend the literature by assessing both individual-oriented and social-oriented achievement mo- tives as antecedents of the achievement goal adoption in Mainland Chinese students — a group of learners of growing interest in achieve- ment motivation literature (see e.g., Hau & Ho, 2010). 1. Achievement motive Another key construct of particular importance and relevance to stu- dent academic functioning is achievement motive. Achievement motive is regarded as a fundamental disposition that orients individuals toward the possibility of success, thus prompting the adoption of self-regulatory forms focused on the attainment of approach goals (Atkinson, 1957; Elliot & Church, 1997; McClelland, 1985; McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953). Achievement motives, as typically defined in Western- based theories and research, are individual-oriented in nature and strongly mirror individualist values (e.g., I enjoy making progress toward the educational goals that I have set for myself; see Spence, 1985 for this argument; see also Atkinson, 1957; McClelland, 1985). However, indi- viduals live in a society. Each individual has his/her own wishes to drive the life s/he wants, and at the same time, is regulated by social ex- pectations and norms prevailing in his/her life (Triandis, 1994). Some Asian researchers have considered culturally-bound differences in achievement motives and claimed that individuals may also have a Learning and Individual Differences 23 (2013) 249–255 ⁎ Corresponding authors. E-mail addresses: youyan.nie@nie.edu.sg (Y. Nie), gregory.liem@nie.edu.sg (G.A.D. Liem). 1041-6080/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.10.006 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Learning and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lindif