Snake charming and the exploitation of snakes in
Morocco
J UAN M. P LEGUEZUELOS ,M ÓNICA F ERICHE ,J OSÉ C. B RITO and S OUMÍA F AHD
Abstract Traditional activities that potentially threaten bio-
diversity represent a challenge to conservationists as they try
to reconcile the cultural dimensions of such activities.
Quantifying the impact of traditional activities on biodiver-
sity is always helpful for decision making in conservation. In
the case of snake charming in Morocco, the practice was in-
troduced there years ago by the religious order the
Aissawas, and is now an attraction in the country’s growing
tourism industry. As a consequence wild snake populations
may be threatened by overexploitation. The focal species for
snake charming, the Egyptian cobra Naja haje, is undergo-
ing both range and population declines. We estimated the
level of exploitation of snakes based on field surveys and
questionnaires administered to Aissawas during –
, and compared our results with those of a study con-
ducted years previously. Aissawas use four venomous
and four non-venomous species for snake charming and
we estimate they harvest a minimum of , individuals
annually, mostly venomous snakes. For exhibition purposes
they selectively remove the largest specimens from the wild
(i.e. those that could have the highest reproductive output).
Compared to the previous data, we detected () a reduction
in the number of species collected, () an increased distance
to collecting fields, and () an increase in the market price
for snakes, after correction for accumulated inflation, signi-
fying a higher demand for these animals.
Keywords Aissawas, cobra, Morocco, Naja haje, Sahara,
snake charming, tourism, unsustainable use
The supplementary material for this article can be found at
https://doi.org/./S
Introduction
I
nteractions between people and wildlife have long had an
impact on biodiversity. Prehistoric and primitive soci-
eties used animals and their derivatives mainly as food but
also for clothing, tools, medicine and pets, as well as in
magic and religious activities (review in Alves & Rosa,
). Vertebrates, particularly reptiles, have frequently
been used for traditional medicine. Alves et al. () iden-
tified reptile species ( families, genera) currently
used in traditional folk medicine, % of which are included
on the IUCN Red List (IUCN, ) and/or the CITES
Appendices (CITES, ). Among the reptile species
being used for medicine, % are snakes.
Snakes have always both fascinated and repelled people,
and the reported use of snakes in magic and religious activ-
ities is global (Alves et al., ). The sacred role of snakes
may be related to a traditional association with health and
eternity in some cultures (Angeletti et al., ) and many
species are under pressure from exploitation as a result
(Alves et al., ). The impact of hunting and collecting
on snake populations has rarely been studied and remains
largely unreported (Gibbons et al., ; Klemens &
Thorbjarnarson, ), and declines in snake populations
are not receiving the same level of attention as, for example,
those in amphibians or marine turtles (Mullin & Seigel,
). Negative effects resulting from exploitation of
snake populations must first be assessed before appropriate
conservation measures can be established for species of
concern.
Healers and indigenous peoples have collected wildlife
for centuries but in the past harvests were relatively sustain-
able and species survival was not threatened (Alvard et al.,
). Recent socio-economic-induced changes in human
populations, however, such as those related to tourism de-
velopment, long considered a clean industry with limited
or no negative environmental impacts, are now affecting
biodiversity (van der Duim & Caalders, ). One example
of this is the population decline in snakes used in snake
charming, a practice that began in Morocco c. years
ago when Sidi Mohammed Ben Aissa, an Andalusian sufi,
founded the religious order known as the Aissawas in
Meknes, central Morocco (Brunel, ).
The Aissawas were healers and custodians of knowledge
about the local flora and fauna. They used snakes in trad-
itional medicine and exhibitions in market places (souks)
throughout the country, inspiring the use of snakes in spec-
tacles to attract tourists. Snakes used in such spectacles suf-
fer from high mortality; when they show obvious signs of ill
health they are disposed of and replaced by freshly caught
individuals (Highfield & Bayley, ). In Morocco re-
gistered ,, foreign visitors (.% more than during
the previous year; Tourisme en Chiffres, ) and tourism
JUAN M. PLEGUEZUELOS (Corresponding author) and MÓNICA FERICHE Department
of Zoology, University of Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
E-mail juanple@ugr.es
JOSÉ C. BRITO Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos,
University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal
SOUMÍA FAHD Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Abdelmalek Essaâdi
University, Tétouan, Morocco
Received May . Revision requested June .
Accepted August . First published online December .
Oryx, 2018, 52(2), 374–381 © 2016 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605316000910
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