Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Marine Pollution Bulletin journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul Ecosystem-based fisheries management and the precautionary approach in the Indian Ocean regional fisheries management organisations Md Saiful Karim a, ⁎ , Erika Techera b , Abdullah Al Arif c a Faculty of Law, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia b UWA Law School & UWA Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Australia c Faculty of Law, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Australia ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Regional fisheries management organisations Indian Ocean Ecosystem-based fisheries management Precautionary approach Climate change ABSTRACT The Indian Ocean hosts a wide range of living resources including fish stocks. Marine resources contribute significantly to economies and livelihoods, and seafood is a major source of protein in Indian Ocean nations. Fisheries resources in the Indian Ocean have started showing symptoms of depletion. Several regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs) have been established for sustainable management of the fisheries re- sources in the Indian Ocean region. These RFMOs were created at different times with various particular mandates, and in some cases prior to the emergence of contemporary scientific concepts and legal approaches to marine environmental governance. In this article, eight such RFMOs are studied to determine the im- plementation of ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) and the precautionary approach (PA), which are now widely accepted norms of fisheries management and international law. This article argues that there is a mismatch between the legal and governance frameworks, and the fisheries science and management. 1. Introduction The Indian Ocean region includes 36 littoral and 11 inland Countries, straddling Africa and Asia hosting 30% of the global popu- lation (Wafar et al., 2011). The region includes large continental countries and small island nations. The regional economy is growing faster than in other areas of the world, and it is estimated that by 2025 it will account for over 20% of global GDP (Wignaraja et al., 2019). This region plays a critical role in maritime trade, hosting a quarter of the world's top ports and carrying 25–30% of global shipping (Llewellyn et al., 2016). A wide range of living resources, including fish stocks, are found in the Indian Ocean. The Indian Ocean is globally significant in terms of capture fisheries and is a region where harvests have continuously grown since the 1950s (Wafar et al., 2011; FAO, 2016). The Eastern Indian Ocean and the Western Indian Ocean, together with the Western Central Pacific, contributed 31% of the total marine catch in 2013 (FAO, 2016). The Indian Ocean now accounts for 10% of global capture fisheries and 90% of culture fisheries (Wafar et al., 2011). It also con- tributes about 20% of the world tuna catch (Bergin, 2018). The Indian Ocean is home to many valuable species of pelagic fish stocks (Bergin, 2018). Millions of people, including subsistence, artisanal and industrial fishers, currently depend on these fisheries for food and livelihoods (Bergin, 2018). Simultaneously, Indian Ocean states are pursuing blue economy goals for future growth and development (IORA, 2017a). Blue economy goals focus upon deriving sustainable wealth from the ocean space to achieve socio-economic benefits, including helping to combat poverty, address broader developmental issues and ensure stability in the region (Techera, 2019). While the blue economy offers many po- tential benefits there are also risks; intensified fishing, expanded ship- ping and increased resource extraction activities can lead to un- sustainable ecological impacts (Obura et al., 2017). Several regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs) have been established to ensure sustainable management of the fisheries resources in the Indian Ocean region. These RFMOs were established at different times and with varying mandates, which inhibit their ability to achieve best practice fisheries management for the region. In this ar- ticle, eight such RFMOs are studied to determine the implementation of ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) and the precautionary approach (PA), which are now widely accepted as basic norms of fisheries management and international law. This article highlights the extent to which these concepts have been embedded in the constitu- tions and management measures of the RFMOs, whether there are gaps and challenges where EBFM and the PA might assist, and thereafter recommends ways to enhance the operations of the RFMOs. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111438 Received 14 April 2020; Received in revised form 29 June 2020; Accepted 1 July 2020 ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: mdsaiful.karim@qut.edu.au (M.S. Karim), erika.techera@uwa.edu.au (E. Techera). Marine Pollution Bulletin 159 (2020) 111438 Available online 17 July 2020 0025-326X/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. T