Environmental Research 107 (2008) 229–236 Heavy metals in flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) from Italian wetlands: The problem of ingestion of lead shot $ Stefania Ancora à , Nicola Bianchi, Claudio Leonzio, Aristeo Renzoni Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali, Universita` di Siena, via P.A. Mattioli, 4, 53100 Siena, Italy Received 28 June 2007; received in revised form 15 January 2008; accepted 5 February 2008 Available online 21 March 2008 Abstract Waterbirds are exposed to many contaminants, including lead from ingestion of shot and fishing sinkers. Lead poisoning had never been reported in flamingos wintering in Italian wetlands. Our investigation stems from a case of four flamingos found dead in Tuscany in 2002 with numerous lead shot in their gizzards. We therefore considered other specimens found dead in different Italian wetlands. Many lead shot found in gizzards and lead tissue concentrations confirmed the hypothesis of lead poisoning in two of the seven specimens analysed: concentrations in liver, kidney, and bone were 361.3, 265.09, and 43.31 mg/g d.w., respectively. Lead organotropism was typical of acute poisoning. Cadmium and mercury were also determined, and found to be in line with what little data are available on this species in the literature. Although Italy recently endorsed the African–Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) prohibiting use of lead shot for hunting in wetlands, our results reveal a first case of lead shot poisoning in flamingos wintering in Italian wetlands. This evidence sounds a further warning of the problem of spent lead shot in countries where hunting in wetlands is not strictly regulated. r 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Phoenicopterus ruber; Lead poisoning; Lead shot; Wetland; Heavy metals 1. Introduction The problem of lead poisoning (saturnism or plumbism) has been known to the scientific world for more than 100 years and studies have repeatedly demonstrated its wide- spread character. Like mercury, lead has been extracted from mines in Europe and elsewhere for centuries and used in various processes. The demand for lead increased during the industrial revolution and again last century when organolead compounds were introduced as anti-knocking agents in petrol. The adverse effects of lead on health are widely recognised. Besides acute lead poisoning, concern has also been expressed about chronic exposure to low levels of the metal (Tsuchiya, 1986; Goyer, 1986). Birds are exposed to many sources of lead contamina- tion, including lead in petrol, industrial effluent, and waste (Leonzio et al., 1986; Pain, 1992; Blus, 1994; Sileo et al., 2001). However, cases of lead poisoning from such sources are rare. Ingestion of lead objects (gunshot or fishing weights) is more common and is recorded as the main cause of lead poisoning in birds, especially waterfowl and species frequenting wetlands (Sanderson and Bellrose, 1986; Pain, 1990, 1995; Scheuhammer and Norris, 1996). Grunnel (1894) was the first to report lead poisoning in waterbirds on the western migration route in North America, attributing it to ingestion of hunting shot. After this observation, it came as a surprise that most birds with shot in their stomachs were waterbirds, especially those frequenting coastal environments. Waterbirds migrate between nesting grounds in different parts of the world and stop to rest and restore themselves for long periods in wetlands (marshes, rivers, canals, natural lagoons, lakes, and reservoirs). Their need to stop in such places has led hunters to create areas of water without vegetation (by continually removing reeds) and small artificial lakes to attract migrating waterbirds in search of resting and feeding areas. ARTICLE IN PRESS www.elsevier.com/locate/envres 0013-9351/$ - see front matter r 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2008.02.004 $ Financial support for this research was provided by the Regional Park of Migliarino, S. Rossore, Massaciuccoli, Pisa (Italy). à Corresponding author. Fax: +39 0577 232930. E-mail address: ancora@unisi.it (S. Ancora).