REDDþ and incentives: An analysis of income generation in forest-dependent communities of the Yasuní Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador T. Loaiza a, b, *, 1 , U. Nehren a, 1 , G. Gerold b, 2 a Institute for Technology and Resources Management in the Tropics and Subtropics (ITT), Cologne University of Applied Sciences, Betzdorfer Straße 2, 50679 Cologne, Germany b Institute of Geography, Department of Landscape Ecology, University of Goettingen, Goldschmidtstr. 5, D-37077 Goettingen, Germany article info Article history: Available online 22 May 2015 Keywords: Yasuní Ecuador Amazon Income generation Forestedependency REDDþ abstract Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDDþ) is considered a promising strategy to slow down deforestation rates, promote sustainable forest use, and support rural livelihoods under the umbrella of climate change mitigation. However, so far there is only little field-based knowledge on how REDDþ can go along with subsistence-based production systems and livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. We addressed this research gap by analyzing the income generation of three widespread ethnic groups (Colonists, Shuar, Kichwa) in the buffer zone of the Yasuní National Park in Ecuador to better understand their livelihoods and possible engagement in REDDþ. We selected two communities of each ethnic group (close-to and far-from markets) and used household surveys to (a) calculate household incomes, (b) assess the degree of forest-dependency, and (c) discuss how REDDþ schemes can be designed along with traditional subsistence-based production systems. We found that the studied indigenous communities have a higher degree of forest-dependency and higher environ- mental income compared to Colonists. However, our assumption that close-to-market communities have a lower degree of forest dependency and higher cash income due to better market access and labor opportunities applies only to the Colonists and Shuar, but must be rejected for the Kichwas who gain income from timber sale. Despite these differences, all communities receive high off-farm revenues from unskilled labor provided by oil-companies and external aid. Therefore, dependency on agriculture and forestry is temporarily reduced. Under these circumstances, REDDþ provides only weak financial in- centives so that the willingness to participate in REDDþ is low. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Introduction Deforestation and degradation of tropical rainforests are asso- ciated with global to local environmental problems, such as enhanced greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, soil degra- dation, and negative impacts on the water cycle (TEEB, 2010). This in turn negatively affects living standards of the world's poor and has direct impacts on livelihoods of forest-dependent communities in rainforest regions (Sunderlin et al., 2005; Wunder, Angelsen, & Belcher, 2014). To reduce deforestation and forest degradation and at the same time support rural livelihoods, it is important to understand the way of living and income generation of forest-dependent rural communities. This is particularly the case when implementing post-Kyoto climate change mitigation mechanisms such as ‘Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDDþ)’ that aim at reducing atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHG) by providing economic incentives to land owners for pre- serving forests and sustainable forest management (UNFCCC, 2011). REDDþ policies explicitly include the targets of biodiversity conservation as well as the “full and effective engagement of indigenous peoples and local communities in, and potential * Corresponding author. Institute for Technology and Resources Management in the Tropics and Subtropics (ITT), Cologne University of Applied Sciences, Betzdorfer Straße 2, 50679 Cologne, Germany. Tel.: þ49 221 8275 2955; fax: þ49 221 8275 2736. E-mail addresses: toaloaizalange@gmail.com (T. Loaiza), udo.nehren@fh-koeln. de (U. Nehren), ggerold@gwdg.de (G. Gerold). 1 Tel.: þ49 221 8275 2765; fax: þ49 221 8275 2736. 2 Tel.: þ49 551 39 8011; fax: þ49 551 39 12139. Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Applied Geography journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apgeog http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2015.04.020 0143-6228/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Applied Geography 62 (2015) 225e236