Applying multimedia learning theory to map learning and driving navigation Laura M. Morett a,1 , Benjamin A. Clegg b, * , Lisa D. Blalock b , Heather M. Mong b a Washington College, Chestertown, MD, United States b Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, United States article info Article history: Received 24 January 2008 Received in revised form 30 June 2008 Accepted 18 July 2008 Available online xxxx Keywords: Multimedia learning theory Map learning Driving abstract The effects of multimedia instructional materials on map learning and subsequent naviga- tion were examined. Participants studied visual and/or verbal driving directions presented simultaneously, sequentially, or exclusively. Memory recall for the studied information was tested, and participants then attempted to navigate the studied routes as well as a novel route in a driving simulator. Dual modality materials with oral narrative directions and a visual map produced significantly superior performance for recall, navigational accu- racy, and number of destinations reached than presentation in either modality alone. The presence of a map facilitated route recall but not subsequent ability to navigate routes in the simulator. Map-first dual modality sequential presentation enhanced wayfinding effi- ciency on the novel route compared to narration-first sequential presentation. Simulta- neous presentation of dual modality materials allowed more destinations to be reached compared with sequential presentation. The results demonstrate that multimedia instruc- tional materials can facilitate map learning and driving navigation, extending the applica- tions of multimedia learning theory to this novel domain. Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction As evidenced by the popularity of websites such as MapQuest, which claims over 40 million unique visitors each month (MapQuest Internet – Overview, 2007), many drivers rely on traditional navigation aids such as printed maps and step-by- step directions to assist in wayfinding. The research presented here assessed whether dual modality (i.e., visual and verbal) presentations of navigation information produced an advantage over single modality presentations. Additionally, the impact of timing (sequential presentation vs. simultaneous presentation) of dual modality materials with maps and driving direc- tions was examined. Broadly speaking, the goals of this research were to extend the tenets of multimedia learning theory to a novel applied context as well as to find ways to improve map learning and navigation. 1.1. Route learning and navigation Navigation research typically focuses on two separate but related aspects of route learning: map acquisition and direction retention. Both maps and verbal directions are commonly believed to lead to the formation of a conceptual representation, or cognitive map (Tolman, 1948), of a route that is used to navigate through the environment (Taylor, 2005). Thus, one of the objectives in route learning and navigation research is to understand how cognitive maps are acquired and what kind of 1369-8478/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.trf.2008.07.001 * Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 9704912211; fax: +1 9704911032. E-mail address: benjamin.clegg@colostate.edu (B.A. Clegg). 1 Present address: University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, United States. Transportation Research Part F xxx (2008) xxx–xxx Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Transportation Research Part F journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trf ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article in press as: Morett, L., M., et al. Applying multimedia learning theory to map learning ... Transporta- tion Research Part F (2008), doi:10.1016/j.trf.2008.07.001