A Stronger Latent-Variable Methodology to Actual–Ideal Discrepancy L. FRANCESCA SCALAS * and HERBERT W. MARSH University of Oxford, UK Abstract We introduce a latent actual–ideal discrepancy (LAID) approach based on structural equation models (SEMs) with multiple indicators and empirically weighted variables. In Study 1, we demonstrate with simulated data, the superiority of a weighted approach to discrepancy in comparison to a classic unweighted one. In Study 2, we evaluate the effects of actual and ideal appearance on physical self-concept and self-esteem. Actual appear- ance contributes positively to physical self-concept and self-esteem, whereas ideal appearance contributes negatively. In support of multidimensional perspective, actual- and ideal-appearance effects on self-esteem are substantially—but not completely— mediated by physical self-concept. Whereas this pattern of results generalises across gender and age, multiple-group invariance tests show that the effect of actual appearance on physical self-concept is larger for women than for men. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Key words: actual–ideal discrepancy; latent-variable models; appearance; self-esteem; gender INTRODUCTION Self-concept researchers are interested in how self-concepts in specific areas are related to global self-esteem. Particularly relevant to our study are relations between actual self- concept ratings (how one actually is), ideal self-concept ratings (how one ideally would like to be), global self-esteem and other more specific components of self-concept. Historically, relations between ideal and actual perceptions and their relations to self- concept stem from heuristic speculations by William James (1890/1963, p. 310), who noted ‘we have the paradox of a man shamed to death because he is only the second pugilist or the second oarsman in the world’, leading him to conclude that objective accomplishments are evaluated in relation to internal frames of reference. Following James, the relations between global esteem and self-perceptions in a specific domain European Journal of Personality Eur. J. Pers. 22: 629–654 (2008) Published online 16 September 2008 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/per.694 *Correspondence to: L. Francesca Scalas, Department of Education, University of Oxford, 15, Norham Gardens, Oxford OX2 6PY, UK. E-mail: francesca.scalas@education.ox.ac.uk Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 11 February 2008 Revised 16 July 2008 Accepted 21 July 2008