Leaders perceived as distant and close. Some implications for psychological theory on leadership Micha Popper Dept. of Psychology, University of Haifa, Mt. Carmel, Haifa, Israel article info abstract Article history: Received 11 February 2011 Received in revised form 24 June 2012 Accepted 30 June 2012 Available online 4 August 2012 This paper deals with some principles derived from the concept of psychological distance, which are relevant to the differential view of distant and close leaders as perceived by the followers. The claim is that psychological distance is a subjective dimension that affects the manner of construal and attributions with regard to leaders. The more distant the leaders in the followers' perception the more they will be construed in abstract categories; more weight will be attributed to them in explaining occurrences of events; the followers will relate more to their traits and less to their behaviors, and will derive from their image more meaning for their own self worth. The theoretical and empirical significance of these arguments is discussed in the paper. © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Psychological distance Close and distant leaders 1. Introduction The question of distance and leadership was discussed in the literature as long as 85 years ago (Bogardus, 1927; Park, 1924). Moreover, even though it was not mentioned explicitly, it is implied in many writings on leadership that distance is an aspect that affects leader–follower relationships. For example, Halpin and Winer's (1957) definition of leader consideration implied that a leader was intimate and close to followers. Also, the scale of individualized consideration in the Full Range Leadership Theory (FLRT) refers to leader behaviors that provide individualized attention to followers, implying leader–followers closeness and intimacy (Bass, 1985, 1998). The issue of distance is also inherent in the Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) theory, by virtue of the assumption that the quality of relations between leader and followers depends on the mutual fulfillment of contractual obligations (Uhl-Bien, Graen, & Scandura, 2000), an assumption that usually exists with regard to close relationships. Surprisingly, although the issue of distance in leadership has been mentioned or inherent in leadership writings for close to a century, only recently has it appeared explicitly as a subject that is seen as fundamental to theory and research on leadership and followership (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Antonakis & Dalgas, 2009; Antonakis and Jacquart (2012); Cole, Bruch, & Shamir, 2009; Collinson, 2005; Napier & Ferris, 1993; Shamir, 1995; Waldman & Yammarino, 1999). Antonakis and Atwater (2002) claim that leader distance can be described in terms of three aspects: physical distance, interaction frequency, and social distance (defined as “differences in status, rank, authority, social standing and power, which affect the degree of social intimacy and social contact that develops between followers and their leaders” (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002, p. 282). Indeed, this kind of conceptualization made it possible to consider leader distance in terms of objective measurable variables (Antonakis & Dalgas, 2009; Antonakis and Jacquart (2012)). Perusal of the literature reveals that the discussion on distance and leadership is complex and even obscure when dealing with the perceptual dimension of the leader's distance as perceived by the followers — a dimension that might be different or more complex than the aspects referred to by Antonakis and Atwater. For example, due to technological changes it is difficult to assume automatically that physical distance necessarily entails less frequency of interaction. It is certainly possible today to maintain frequent contact via the Internet between employees and their superiors on two sides of the ocean (Avolio, Kahai, & Dodge, 2001). The Leadership Quarterly 24 (2013) 1–8 E-mail addresses: mpopper@psy.haifa.co.il, mpopper65@gmail.com. 1048-9843/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.06.008 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect The Leadership Quarterly journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/leaqua