International Journal of Intercultural Relations 88 (2022) 32–41 Available online 31 March 2022 0147-1767/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Solo status, religious centrality, and discrimination among American Muslim women Hanan Hashem a, b, * , Minha Ghani b , Shehrez Hirani a , Ashley Bennett a , Germine H. Awad a a The University of Texas at Austin, College of Education, 1912 Speedway Suite 504, Austin TX, 78721, USA b The Family and Youth Institute, 42807 Ford Rd #203, Canton, MI 48187, USA A R T I C L E INFO Keywords: Solo status Gender Identity centrality Multiple discrimination American Muslim ABSTRACT The present study examined the extent to which age, religious centrality, and solo status expe- riences predict reports of discrimination for American Muslim women. We also examined the role of solo status as a moderator in the relationship between age and perceived discrimination and the relationship between religious centrality and perceived discrimination. Results showed that age and religious centrality did not predict experiences of discrimination among American Muslim women, while solo status was a signifcant and positive predictor of discrimination ex- periences. The two-way interactions provided showed that solo status interacts with age and religious centrality to exacerbate perceived discrimination. Ultimately, while controlling for the effects of wearing the hijab, young and highly religious-identifed Muslim women with high experiences of solo status appeared to be the most perceptive of and vulnerable to religious-based discrimination. Background There are nearly 3.5 million American Muslims, and this number will likely double in the next 30 years (Pew Research Center, 2016). Although Muslims have recently been brought to the forefront of attention as a result of anti-Muslim and anti-terrorist sur- veillance and vigilance, Muslims have always been a part of America’s history (Ba-Yunus & Kone, 2004; Muhammad, 2001; Smith, 2010). Given the erroneous confation between the religious and ethnic identities of Muslims (Awad, 2010; Cainkar, 2018), it is important to note that Muslims are the most ethnically diverse religious group in America (Gallup International, Inc. & Muslim West Facts Project, 2009; Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2017). In fact, the history of Muslims in America includes de- scendants of Muslim Africans who were enslaved; followers of the Nation of Islam; converts from the Anglo, Latino, and Native American communities; and 19th, 20th, and 21st-century immigrants and refugees from Middle Eastern, South Asian, Eastern Eu- ropean, and African countries (Anwar, 2008; Mirza, 2014; Smith, 2010). Historically, Muslims in the U.S. have faced various forms of persecution and discrimination before and after the events of September 11, 2001 (Ahmed, Quinny, Limayez & Khanx, 2021; Ali et al., 2015; Shaheen, 1997; Speck, 1997). However, due to the combination of negative media portrayals of Muslims after horrifc events, such as 9/11, the Orlando and Paris shootings, the Boston * Correspondence to: College of Education, 1912 Speedway, Stop D5000, Austin, TX 78712, USA. E-mail addresses: hmhashem@utexas.edu (H. Hashem), minha.ghani@utexas.edu (M. Ghani), shehrez.hirani@utexas.edu (S. Hirani), ashley. bennett@utexas.edu (A. Bennett), gawad@austin.utexas.edu (G.H. Awad). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect International Journal of Intercultural Relations journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijintrel https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2022.03.005 Received 13 May 2021; Received in revised form 20 January 2022; Accepted 18 March 2022