Citation: Ademu, L.O.; Gao, J.; de Assis, J.R.; Uduebor, A.; Atawodi, O. Taking a Shot: The Impact of Information Frames and Channels on Vaccination Willingness in a Pandemic. Vaccines 2023, 11, 137. https://doi.org/10.3390/ vaccines11010137 Academic Editors: Johanna C. Meyer, Sylvia Opanga and Brian Godman Received: 10 October 2022 Revised: 1 January 2023 Accepted: 4 January 2023 Published: 6 January 2023 Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). Article Taking a Shot: The Impact of Information Frames and Channels on Vaccination Willingness in a Pandemic Lilian O. Ademu 1 , Jingjing Gao 2, *, Janine Rangel de Assis 1 , Aanuoluwapo Uduebor 1 and Ojonoka Atawodi 3 1 Public Policy Program, College of Arts and Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28262, USA 2 Texas A&M AgriLife Center in El Paso, Texas A&M University, El Paso, TX 79927, USA 3 Department of Computer Science, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA * Correspondence: jingjing.gao@ag.tamu.edu Abstract: The reluctance of people to receive safe and recommended available vaccines is a well- documented public health challenge. As information and communication technologies evolve, this challenge gets more complex and even harder to manage during complex public health situa- tions. In this experimental study, we examine the relationship between vaccine information frames (with scientific information vs. without scientific information) and channels (through government vs. religious organizations) and vaccination willingness in the U.S. in the context of a pandemic. Additionally, we evaluate the interaction between vaccine skepticism, vaccine information frames, and vaccine information channels on vaccination willingness. This experimental study uses data from Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTURK) to evaluate the relationships between vaccine skepticism, vaccine information frames, and channels on vaccination willingness. We find that contrary to our hypothesis, a vaccine advisory framed with scientific information decreases people’s vaccination willingness compared to one framed without scientific information. Additionally, the impact of framing on vaccination willingness is conditioned on participants’ skepticism—participants who hold skepticism toward the vaccine but received information framed with scientific information score significantly higher in vaccination willingness compared to participants who do not hold skepticism toward a vaccine. The results suggest that the factors impacting vaccination willingness are complex and nuanced. Thus, policymakers should be more strategic with the delivery of vaccination information, especially during complex health crises. Keywords: vaccine skepticism; global pandemic; health communication; framing theory; survey experiments 1. Introduction Before the COVID-19 global pandemic, the reluctance of people to receive safe and recommended available vaccines was already a public health issue worldwide [1]. His- torically, government failures and misdeeds on some public health issues have led to citizens’ alienation and distrust, predisposing people to misinformation and conspirato- rial thinking [2]. These issues are further exacerbated by media framing of issues along ideological divides [3,4]. During the 2021 pandemic, the US Surgeon General released an advisory on building a healthier communication and information environment. The report states that people spreading misinformation may not necessarily be trying to mis- inform but trying to make sense of conflicting information or seeking answers to sincere questions (https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-misinformation- advisory.pdf; accessed on 2 December 2022). The concerns associated with the adverse effects of vaccination have lined the histori- cal timeline of vaccination programs globally. From the development of the first vaccine by Edward Jenner in 1796 to the COVID-19 vaccine in 2020, vaccine skepticism has been an issue of public health concern. A study found that despite varying reasons for vaccine Vaccines 2023, 11, 137. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11010137 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/vaccines