Dominance and symmetry in partner violence by male and female university students in 32 nations Murray A. Straus ⁎ Family Research Laboratory, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, United States Available online 13 October 2007 Abstract The study investigated the widely held beliefs that physical violence against partners (PV) in marital, cohabiting, and dating relationships is almost entirely perpetrated by men, and that the major risk factor for PV is male dominance in the relationship. The empirical data on these issues were provided by 13,601 university students in 32 nations who participated in the International Dating Violence Study. The results in the first part of this paper show that almost one-third of the female as well as male students physically assaulted a dating partner in the previous 12 months, and that the most frequent pattern was bidirectional, i.e., both were violent, followed by “female-only” violence. Violence by only the male partner was the least frequent pattern according to both male and female participants. The second part of the article focuses on whether there is gender symmetry in a crucial aspect of the etiology of partner PV — dominance by one partner. The results show that dominance by either the male or the female partner is associated with an increased probability of violence. These results, in combination with results from many other studies, call into question the assumption that PV is primarily a male crime and that, when women are violent, it is usually in self-defense. Because these assumptions are crucial elements in almost all partner PV prevention and treatment programs, a fundamental revision is needed to bring these programs into alignment with the empirical data. Prevention and treatment of PV could become more effective if the programs recognize that most PV is bidirectional and act on the high rate of perpetration by women and the fact that dominance by the female partner is as strongly related to PV as dominance by the male partner. © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Domestic violence; Gender; Prevention; Assault; Patriarchy 1. Introduction This article reports the results of an empirical investigation of two of the most controversial and important issues in understanding physical violence between partners in marital, cohabiting, or dating relationships. The answers to these questions can have profound implications for prevention and treatment of partner violence. 1. Is partner violence primarily perpetrated by men, as compared to women, and as compared to both partners engaging in physical violence? Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Children and Youth Services Review 30 (2008) 252 – 275 www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth ⁎ Tel.: +1 603 862 2594. E-mail address: murray.straus@unh.edu. URL: http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2. 0190-7409/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.10.004