Deciphering carnivoran competition for animal resources at the 1.46 Ma early Pleistocene site of Barranco Le  on (Orce, Granada, Spain) Lloyd A. Courtenay a, b, * , Jos  e Yravedra b, c, d, e , Darío Herranz-Rodrigo b, c , Juan Jos  e Rodríguez-Alba b , Alexia Serrano-Ramos f , Ver  onica Estaca-G  omez b , Diego Gonz  alez-Aguilera a , Jos  e Antonio Solano f, g , Juan Manuel Jim  enez-Arenas f, g, h a Department of Cartographic and Land Engineering, Higher Polytechnic School of Avila, University of Salamanca, Hornos Caleros 50, 05003,  Avila, Spain b Department of Prehistory, Ancient History and Archaeology, Complutense University of Madrid, Prof. Aranguren S/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain c C.A.I. Archaeometry and Archaeological Analysis, Complutense University, Prof. Aranguren S/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain d Grupo de Investigaci on Ecosistemas Cuaternarios. Complutense University, Prof. Aranguren S/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain e Grupo de Investigaci on Arqueología Prehist orica. Complutense University, Prof. Aranguren S/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain f Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Granada, Campus Universitario de Cartuja,18071, Granada, Spain g Museum Primeros Pobladores de Europa ‘Josep Gibert’, Cam. San Simon, 18858, Orce, Granada, Spain h Institute of Peace and Conflict Research, University of Granada, C/ Rector L opez Argüeta S/n, 18001, Granada, Spain article info Article history: Received 12 June 2022 Received in revised form 9 November 2022 Accepted 4 December 2022 Available online 9 December 2022 Handling Editor: Danielle Schreve Keywords: Canis mosbachensis Tooth marks Trophic pressure Geometric morphometrics 3D modelling Computational learning Archaeological data science Digital taphonomy abstract Barranco Le on (Orce, Guadix Baza, Spain) is one of the sites with the oldest evidence of human activity in south-western Europe. This site has yielded human remains in association with both fauna and lithic artefacts, linked through the presence of anthropogenic cut and percussion marks. Nevertheless, while this site is a clear example of early hominin access to carcasses, the accumulations have been identified as a palimpsest, where multiple agents including carnivorans played a role in modifying and interacting in site formation processes. From this perspective, the interpretation and study of the Barranco Le on site is of great difficulty. Traditionally, interpretations have presented Barranco Le on as an area where hominins as well as the giant hyena, Pachycrocuta brevirostris, competed for access to carcasses left by machairodontine felids, such as the saber-toothed Homotherium latidens. Nevertheless, as will be pre- sented in this study, the complexity and trophic pressure of Barranco Le on is much more complicated than originally hypothesized. This study presents a detailed taphonomic analysis of carnivoran activities in the level D1 of the Barranco Le on assemblage. 3D modelling, geometric morphometrics, and computational learning are used to provide new insights into the tooth pits observed on faunal materials. Here we show that Canis mosbachensis plays a pivotal role in the formation of the site, followed by Pachycrocuta, Homotherium, Ursus etruscus, and Xenocyon (Lycaon) lycaonoides. From this perspective, it can be seen that while Pachycrocuta and Homotherium were active agents in the formation of the site, other carnivorans are also important agents to consider when investigating the Guadix Baza region. © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The Lower Pleistocene of Europe is a key time period that has provided insights into the activity and biology of some of the first hominin populations outside of Africa. Throughout this moment in human evolution, hominins and carnivorans have been documented to have complex relationships, often competing for many of the same resources (Binford, 1981; Brain, 1981; Domínguez-Rodrigo et al., 2007; Rodríguez et al., 2012; Lozano et al., 2016; Rodríguez-G omez et al., 2016; inter alia). In light of the importance of meat consumption in early human evolution, this topic is especially interesting when considering the intensity of this competition for some early European sites and the influence this may have on population dynamics (P eriquet et al., 2015), or the basic survival of early Homo (Turner, 1992). One of the most important sites that presents the earliest evi- dence of this type of competition outside of Africa is the Eurasian * Corresponding author. Department of Cartographic and Land Engineering, Higher Polytechnic School of Avila, University of Salamanca, Hornos Caleros 50, 05003,  Avila, Spain. E-mail address: ladc1995@gmail.com (L.A. Courtenay). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Quaternary Science Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quascirev https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107912 0277-3791/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Quaternary Science Reviews 300 (2023) 107912